THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


GRASSES, 

MEADOWS  and  PASTURES 


MANUFACTURE   OF   SUGAR. 


J.  B.  KILLEBREW,  A.  M.,  Plj.  D., 


Published  by  A.  J.  McWHIRTEB, 

Comniinnio»(  r  of  Agncuffnre,  Mntixfici*  cm  ft  .Mi:. 


ALBERT  B.  TAVKL,  PKTNTKK  TO  MM 
1883. 


MEADOWS  4  PASTURES. 

A  Compendium  of  the 

GRASSES  OF  TENNESSEE, 

PREPARED  EXPRESSLY  FOR  THE 

FARMERS    OF    TENNESSEE 


.&.<3.a,ptecl  to  tlie  ^Wla-ole  Co-u.rs.try. 


ByJ.B.KILLEBREW,A.M.,PLD. 


Published  by  the  Bureau  of  Agriculture,  Statistics  and  Mines,  jor  the  State  of  1\ 


'    NASHViliLE: 

ALBERT  B.  TAVEL,  PRINTER  TO  THE  STATE. 
1883. 


SB 


INTRODUCTION. 


No  surer  test  of  the  degree  of  agricultural  advancement  of  a 
country  can  be  found  than  the  relative  acreage  of  land  laid  down 
to  grass  and  devoted  to  tillage.     Wherever  the  grass  is  most  abund- 
ant there  is  the  highest  farming.     This  statement  is  most  strikingly 
established  by  comparing  the  agricultural  systems  of  France  and 
England.     In  France  53  per  cent  of  the  tillable  land  is  annually 
sown  in  some  kind  of  grain,  while  in  England  the  grain-bearing 
£    per  cent  of  land  is  only  25.     On  the  other  hand,  while  France  has 
'    but  22  per  cent  in  grass,  England  has  50.     Notwithstanding  this 
os    difference  in  the  amount  of  land  devoted  to  grain,  the  yield  of 
g    wheat  to  each  inhabitant  is  almost  identical  in  the  two  countries 
"•'    Every  acre  of  grain  land  in  England  receives,  on  an  average,  the 
manure  from  the  animals  fed  off  three  acres  of  grass.     In  France, 
§J    on  the  contrary,  the  manure  made  from  each  acre  of  grass  has  to 
$    be  spread  over  two  and  a  half  acres  of  grain.      In  other  words, 
o    each  acre  of  grain  in  England  gets  nine  loads  of  manure  to  one 
load  given  to  the  acre  in  France. 

A  further  comparison  would  show  that  the  acknowledged  supe- 
6    riority  of  English  cattle,  sheep  and  other  domestic  animals,  over 
^    those  of  France,  or  any  other  country  for  that  matter,  is  due  more 
8     to  the  superiority  in  quality  and  quantity  of  the  meadows  and  pas- 
tures of  that  wonderful  island  than  to  anything  else.     If  we  turn 
5     our  attention  to  other  countries  we  shall  find  that  the  amount  and 
3    character  of  grasses  grown  may  always  be  taken  as  a  measure  of 
'    the  degree  of  advancement  to  which  their  agriculture  has  reached. 
It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  statement  holds  good  only  of 
the  cultivated  grasses,  but  of  these  it  is  perhaps  universally  true. 

Under  this  test  the  agricultural  system  of  Tennessee  falls  very 
low.     It  is  a  notable  fact,   often  observed  and  commented  upon, 


446366 


(  4) 

that  the  great  leading,  dominating  error  in  the  farming  of  Tennes- 
ee  has  been,  and  is,  the  putting  too  much  land  in  corn  and  oats, 
and  too  little  in  grass.  Under  this  system  a  very  large  breadth  of 
the  land  has  been  well-nigh  ruined.  Indeed,  the  damage  is  so 
serious  that  some  change  has  come  to  be  absolutely  necessary. 
Judging  from  the  experience  of  other  countries,  the  one  and  only 
thing  capable  of  redeeming  this  almost  ruined  land  and  saving  the 
farmers  from  absolute  bankruptcy,  is  grass. 

Fortunately,  the  climate,  soil  and  geographical  locality  of  Ten- 
nessee all  combine  to  render  it  by  nature  a  grass  region.  In  all  the 
essentials  to  success  in  this  great  branch  of  agriculture,  but  few  sec- 
tions of  the  United  States  surpass  East  and  Middle  Tennessee, 
while  the  northern  part  of  West  Tennessee  is  well  suited  to  many 
grasses.  It  is  not  unreasonable  to  anticipate  at  no  distant  day, 
under  an  improved  system  of  farming,  these  natural  capabilities 
will  be  thoroughly  and  judiciously  developed,  and  where  now  are 
only  vast  wastes  and  forest  wilds,  trackless  and  uncultivated,  rich 
pastures  will  bloom  and  countless  cattle  roam.  But  no  such  result 
can  come  without  a  radical  change  in  the  system  of  farming. 

From  the  circumstance  of  the  peculiar  position  of  Tennessee  as 
a  border  State  to  the  cotton  belt,  she  has  lost  much  time  in  agricul- 
tural progress.  The  large  returns  of  the  cotton  planters  South, 
and  the  wonderful  ease  with  which  they  achieved  great  wealth,  in- 
duced those  living  near  to  attempt  the  same  role  that  succeeded  so 
well  further  south. 

Tennessee  posesses  in  her  bosom  all  the  elements  of  a  grazing 
country.  Scarcely  a  foot  of  land  exists  in  all  her  borders  that  will 
not  in  an  eminent  degree  meet  the  wants  of  some  one  or  other  of 
the  grasses.  Living  streams  of  water,  fed  by  perennial  springs,  as 
Bweet  as  those  of  Castalia,  hasten  down  the  mountain  slopes  and 
lazily  meander  through  the  beautiful  valleys.  Being  midway  be- 
tween the  lakes  and  the  gulf,  we  live  just  where  the  warm,  moist 
southern  winds  encounter  the  condensing  blasts  of  the  north,  so 
that  we  are  rarely  the  sufferers  from  droughts.  In  fact,  nature  in- 
tended this  State  as  a  grazing  region,  while  man  in  his  thirst  for 
riches  has  made  it  what  it  is. 

Grass  is  wealth.  As  lowly  and  humble  as  it  appears,  it  comprises 
about  one-sixth  of  all  the  vegetation  of  the  world.  It  nourishes 


(5) 

more  animals  than  all  other  food  combined,  and  furnishes  all  the 
elements  for  the  growth  of  animals. 

Grasses  are  divided  into  two  general  classes,  natural  and  artificial, 
the  former  includes  those  grasses  with  long,  simple,  narrow  leaves, 
with  a  prominent  mid-rib  or  vein  in  the  center,  and  smaller  ones 
running  parallel  to  it,  and  at  the  base  the  leaf  divides  and  clasps 
the  stem  in  such  a  way  that  the  stem  seems  to  pass  through  it.  As 
a  rule  the  stem  is  hollow  and  closed  at  the  joints,  though  a  few  are 
solid  stemmed.  The  classification  of  grasses  would  be  impossible 
were  their  general  appearance  only  considered.  So  great  are  the 
changes  produced  by  modes  of  culture,  by  soil  and  climate, 
botanists,  to  arrive  at  the.  precise  plant,  therefore,  have  adopted 
characteristics  that  undergo  no  change,  such  as  flowers,  etc.  From 
the  rule  of  botanists  in  giving  all  plants  technical  names,  it  would 
be  a  difficult  matter  to  recognize  an  old  familiar  friend  under  the 
new  guise  of  a  generic  term ;  but  we  will  endeavor,  by  giving  also 
the  name  in  common  use,  to  remove  this  difficulty  and  bring  them 
within  the  comprehension  of  any  one  who  will  take,  pains  to 
properly  read  the  descriptions. 

Artificial  grass  includes  all  leguminous  plants,  such  as  clover,W 
peas,  bSansretc.,  Awhile  cereals,  such  as  maize,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  \/ 
rye,  rice,  sorghum,  dhouro,  chocolate-corn  and  broom-corn,  though  / 
^really  true  grasses,  are  generally  classed  with  the  artificials.  J 

To  one  not  acquainted  with  the  subject,  the  facility  with  which 
grass  scatters  and  diffuses  itself  is  very  surprising.  But  it  seems 
that  so  important  a  vegetation  should  not  be  subject  to  the  fancies 
or  caprices  of  man.  The  seeds  are  prepared  in  such  a  way,  that 
they  are  self-sowers.  It  is  this  remarkable  facility  of  transportation 
thatlias  given  rise  to  the~su7mlse  of  many,  that  it  grows  by  sponta- 
neous generation.  Some  of  the  seeds  have  hooks,  and  by  these  -/-^ 
they  fasten  to  any  passing  animal  and  are  carried  for  miles.  Others 
lie  undigested  in  the  crops  of  birds,  or  maws  of  animals,  and  are 
scattered  with  the  dejectse.  Snows  gather  them  on  the  hill-sides 
and  bear  them  far  away  on  tbe_melting^  troronlp;  and  scatter  them, 
mayhap,  along  some  foreign  shore.  The  air  also  assists  in  this,  and 
lifts  them  on  its  wings  and  they  fly  in  all  directions.  When  grass 
once  stands,  even  if  a  passing  beast  cuts  off  its  annual  supply  of 
seed,  its  rhizomes  or  creeping  roots  thrust  their  tender  spongioles 
tn"rough  the  yielding  soil,  and  thus  many  a  field  is  clothed  with 


verdure.  And  besides,  many  of  the  grasses  are  perennials,  and 
though  torn  and  trumped  by  stock,  they  gather  new  strength  for 
another  year,  and  push  on  their  foothold. 

There  is  a  large  class  resembling  the  grasses  in  general  appear- 
ance, but  very  different  in  the  physical  structure  and  nutritive 
elements.  I  allude  to  the  rushes  and  sedges,  of  which  there  are 
over  five  hundred  varieties  growing  in  the  United  States,  and  eighty 
of  them  are  found  in  Tennessee.  What  is  commonly  known  as 
"  broomsedge  "  is  not  a  sedge  at  all,  but  a  true  grass,  while  the 
r,/*/;  »  well-known  " seed-tick "  grass  is  a  sedge. 

There  is  a  simple  method  of  separating  the  grasses  from  these 
rushes  and  sedges,  which  will  be  briefly  stated. 

The  sheath  of  sedges  is  a  hollow  tube,  through  which  the  stems 

pass,  and  it  cannot  be  removed    without  tearing  it  open.     This  is 

not  the  case  with  grass,  as  the  sheath  can  be  stripped  down,  it  being 

open  to  the  joint.     Besides,  the  leaves  of  all  grasses  are  two-ranked, 

that   is,  the   stem  has  leaves  on   each  side,  some  opposite,  others 

alternate,  but  always  only  on  two  sides.     The  leaves  of  sedges  are 

I  M     three-ranked,  or  come  out  on  three  sides  of  the  circle  of  a  stem. 

In  other  words?  the  stem  formsji  circle  of^  360^ degrees.     The  grass 

~  leaves  are  180  degrees  from  "each  otherTamf  the  sedge  leaves  are 

120  degrees  apart. 

— »  In  the  grass-like  rush  the  flowers  are  divided  into  six  points, 
within  which  are  six  stamens  and  a  triangular  ovary  containing 
three  seeds.  A  grass  has  never  but  one  seed  to  the  ovary. 

The  English  farmer  is  able  to  take  long  leases  of  farms  from  the 
rich  landholder,  at  from  $20  to  $50  per  annum  rent.  How  does 
he  pay  this  extravagant  rent  and  support  his  family  ?  He  could 
not  do  it  in  any  other  manner  than  by  improving,  manuring  and 
increasing  the  meadows  with  which  they  are  constantly  set.  A 
Tennessean  will  manure  his  garden,  and  sometimes  his  corn  land; 
but  whoever  thinks  of  spreading  manure  on  his  meadows?  Yet 
the  Englishman  will  spend  large  sums  of  money,  and  devote  labor 
through  the  whole  winter,  in  accumulating  a  large  compost  heap  to 
apply  to  his  meadows!  The  result  may  be  imagined.  While  the 
^  Tennessee  meadows  will  average  from  800  to  1,500  pounds  of  hay 
to  the  acre  ;  English  meadows  will  ml^eTom*'^  to  five  tons  on 
land  that  has  no  other  advantage  than  the  care  bestowed  on  it  by 
the  owner.  J 


Besides  this,  the  grass  grown  in  a  damp,  cold  climate  is  never  so « 
sweet  and  nutritious  as  that  raised  under  a  warm  sun  and  with 
quick  growth.  In  this  State  there  is  an  occasional  drought  that 
begins  in  June  or  July,"interfering  seriously  with  the  development 
of  the  later  crops.  But  such  a  condition  of  climate  is  scarcely 
known  in  the  earlier  months  during  the  growth  of  the  grass  crops. 
Yet  there  is  with  the  spring  rains  a  degree  of  temperature  unknown 
to  the  Englishman,  a  degree  sufficiently  high  to  give  grass  all  the 
necessary  heat  to  enable  it  to  attain  its  full  supply  of  sugar  and 
nitrogen  from  the  soil. 

The  beautiful  lands  of  Kentucky  and  Missouri,  to  say  nothing  of 
the  Northern  States,  still  retain  a  great  value,  and  are  in  demand  at 
high  prices.  It  is  because  these  States  have  more  land  in  meadows, 
while  broad  stretches  of  valuable  pastures  and  prairies  dot  the  land- 
scape in  every  direction.  Poor  land  will  not  make  much  grass, 
and  without  a  great  outlay  of  capital,  land  cannot  be  placed  in  first- 
class  order  at  once.  But  it  only  requires  a  start,  and  then  the 
persevering,  provident  farmer  will  soon  see  his  farm  blossoming  as 
the  rose.  Land  in  Europe  not  infrequently  reaches  the  sum  of 
$1,000  per  acre  for  purely  agricultural  purposes,  while  here  it  is  a 
difficult  matter  to  extract,  with  our  best  farming,  $50  per  acre,  and 
then  the  expenses  are  to  be  drawn  from  that  meagre  sum. 

Let  us  draw  a  comparision  between  our  leading  staples.  Cotton 
here  will  make  on  average  land  800  pounds  seed  cotton  per  acre. 
This  at  the  usual  price  makes  $20  per  acre.  Corn  will  produce  on 
good  land  eight  barrels  per  acre,  and  at  $2.00,  the  laborer  will  get 
$16.  Tobacco,  our  most  remunerative  crop,  on  good  land  will 
make  800  pounds  of  leaf,  which  is  about  $50  to  $60  per  acre. 
Wheat  will  make,  on  good  land,  fifteen  bushels  per  acre,  and  at  $1 
will  yield  about  $15.  Taking  the  cost  of  production  from  these 
amounts,  the  average  farmer  will  not  have  left,  at  the  best,  more 
than  twelve  dollars  per  acre.  A  good  meadow,  in  full  bearing, 
with  ordinary  care,  will  yield,  with  two  cuttings,  at  least  two  tons 
per  acre.  The  cost  is  altogether  in  harvesting,  while  the  trouble  of 
sending  to  market  is  no  greater  than  either  of  the  other  crops. 
This,  at  the  price  for  which  it  has  been  selling  for  several  years, 
will  be  $20  per  ton.  Here,  then,  is  a  difference  in  actual  receipts 
of  almost  double  that  obtained  from  other  crops,  nothing  paid  out 
for  production,  and  besides  the  land  can  be  enriched  year  by  year, 


(8) 

until  it  attains  an  almost  fabulous  fertility ;  nor  is  this  all.  The 
amount  of  hay  produced  from  a  single  acre  can  be  increased  almost 
to  any  extent  by  the  application  of  stimulating  manures.  If  then, 
land  in  Europe  can  produce  five  tons  of  hay  per  acre,  and  sell  for 
$1,000  per  acre,  why  cannot  Tennessee  lands,  far  better  naturally, 
and  in  a  more  genial  climate,  be  made  to  rival  these  results  ?  One 
thing  only  prevents,  and  that  is  the  fatal  apathy  and  want  of  enter- 
prise on  the  part  of  the  land  owners.  It  is  the  thirst  for  immediate 
returns.  To  create  this  state  of  tillage,  it  will  be  necessary  to  pro- 
ceed slowly,  and  look  f«  r  no  returns  of  consequence  for  one  or  two 
years.  Pressing  necessities  weigh  upon  the  farmer,  and  he  thought- 
lessly drives  on  in  the  same  interminable  furrow,  regardless  of  the 
loss  of  time  and  fertility.  The  Northern  husbandman  bales  his 
hay,  and  is  able  to  ship  it  to  all  parts  of  the  South  in  search  of  a 
market,  and  after  paying  heavy  railroad  charges,  is  still  able  .to 
sell  his  produce  at  a  remunerative  price.  The  Southern  man  has 
no  freight  charges  to  tax  his  hay,  and  yet  he  is  content  to  let  his 
Northern  rival  enjoy,  without  competition,  this  great  market. 
When  will  our  eyes  be  opened  to  our  interests,  is  a  question  often 
asked,  but  difficult  to  answer. 

A  capitalist  invests  his  money  in  United  States  bonds,  and 
without  risk  or  labor  contentedly  cuts  off  his  coupons  and  enjoys 
his  ease,  while  the  merchant,  with  the  same  capital,  is  harrassed  to 
death  meeting  bills,  collecting  accounts,  and  watching  with  unceas- 
ing vigilance  the  turn  of  the  markets.  So  it  is  with  farmers.  A 
prudent  farmer  will  invest  his  farm-  capital  in  grass,  and  he  con- 
tentedly watches  the  growth  of  the  grass  and  the  browsing  of  his 
cattle,  while  his  neighbor  raising  corn  and  cotton,  is  busy  all  the 
year  in  cultivating  his  crops,  watching  his  laborers,  buying  mules, 
bacon  and  hay  from  his  more  prudent  friend,  and  when  he  counts 
his  receipts  at  the  end  of  the  struggle,  he  will  find  his  neighbor  has 
absorbed  the  greater  part  of  them.  Not  only  this,  but  a  stranger 
appears  in  the  country  desirous  of  investing  in  land,  and  while  he 
would  turn  from  the  cotton  plantation  at  ten  or  twelve  dollars  per 
acre,  he  would  gladly  invest  in  the  grass  farm  at  forty  or  fifty  doll- 
ars per  acre. 

Land  that  will  yield  ten  or  fifteen  dollars  per  acre  clear  of  the 
expense  of  cultivation,  cannot  be  supposed,  and  is  not  entitled  to 
the  same  value  with  land  that  will  produce  thirty  or  forty  dollars 


(9) 

on  the  same  breadth.  And  yet  the  farmers  of  Tennessee  hesitate 
to  pursue  this  course.  Gulliver,  in  the  midst  of  his  extravaganzas, 
uttered  a  truism  that  will  go  down  to  all  ages,  when  he  said  "  the 
man  who  makes  two  blades  of  grass  grow  where  one  grew  before, 
is  a  great  public  benefactor  ;  "  and  when  the  citizens  of  Tennessee 
look  at  their  own  interest  in  a  proper  light,  they  will  realize  this 
truth,  and  then  by  acting  upon  it,  double  or  even  quadruple  the  in- 
trinsic value  of  the  lands  of  the  State. 

Grass  means  less  labor,  less  worry,  fewer  hands,  more  enjoyment, 
finer  stock  and  more  charming  homes,  and  as  a  consequence,  hap- 
pier families,  more  education,  more  taste  and  refinement,  and  a 
higher  elevation  of  the  moral  character.  Let  grasses  be  sown  and 
our  homes  beautified,  and  there  will  be  more  contentment,  more 
satisfaction,  less  gloom  and  despondency,  less  carping  and  dis- 
content. 


MEADOW  GRASSES. 


The  following  are  the  most  trustworthy  grasses  for  the  meadow 
in  the  latitude  of  Tennessee.  I  give  both  the  common  and  scien- 
tific names,  the  average  number  of  pounds  in  a  bushel,  the  number 
of  seed  in  an  ounce,  and  depth  of  soil  at  which  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  seeds  will  germinate : 


COMMON  NAMES. 

SCIENTIFIC  NAMES. 

JvfijYrlh** 

No.  Ibs.  in  bushel. 

8 

.2 

i 

Depth  soil  in  inches  at 
which  the  greatest 
number  of  seeds  will 
germinate. 

Timothy                       

Phleum  pratense  

44 
12 

12 
18to30 
15 

74000  i  inch.  ^ 
425000  $  inch. 
40000  i  inch. 
15000)  t  to  i  in. 
27000  0  to  1  in. 

Herd's-grass  or  Ked  Top  

Dactylis  glomerata  
Lolium  perenne  
Lolium  Italicum  

Millet 

/  >  'Meadow  Oat  Grass  

5* 

118000 

0  to  J  in. 

Bed  Clover  
Alsike  Clover  

Trifolium  pratensi|i'..r£  . 
Tr  if  olium  hybridum  ...    . 
Trifolium  erectum  
Trifolium  incarnatum   . 
Medicago  sativa  
Onobrychis  sativa  

64 
64 
64 
64 
60 
26 

16000 
16000 
16000 
16000 
12000 
10280 

0  to  *  in. 
0  to  I  in. 
0  to  |  in. 
0  to  |  in. 

f  to  i'  in. 

Sapling  Red  Clover  

Crimson  Clover  

Lucerne  

/    Sainfoine  or  Esparsette  

( 11 ) 

TIMOTHY—  (Phleum  pratense.} 

This  grass  is  known  in  New  England  as  Herd's  grass,  from  a 
Mr.  Herd,  who  found  it  growing  wild  in  New  Hampshire,  and  in- 
troduced it  into  cultivation.  Further  south,  however,  this  name  is 
only  applied  to  Red  Top,  or  Agrostis  vulgaris. 

Mr.  Timothy  Hanson  carried  it  from  New  York  to  Carolina,  and 
from  him  it  is  known  as  timothy  grass. 

Its  leaves  are  abundant  near  the  ground,  but  those  on  the  stalk 
are  comparatively  few.  Like  most  other  meadow  grasses,  it  attains 
its  greatest  value  as  a  food  before  the  seeds  are  ripe.  The  latter 
are  very  abundant  and  highly  nutritious.  From  ten  to  thirty 
bushels  are  made  on  good  land. 

It  ripens  late,  and  consequently  favore  the 
farmer  very  much,  as  he  is  able  to  gave  his 
wheat  before  cutting  and  curing  his  hay.  It 
was  a  common  custom  at  one  time  to  sow  it 
with  clover,  as  it  added  to  the  value  of  the  hay, 
and  from  the  strength  of  its  tall  stems  it  pre- 
vented the  clover  from  lodging,  but  the  fact  of 
ripening  so  much  later  than  clover,  causing  a 
great  loss  from  shrinkage,  has  done  away  with 
this  practice,  especially  as  orchard  grass  is  so 
much  superior  in  that  respect.  Timothy  is  not 
suitable  for  pasturing,  having  scarcely  any 
aftermath.  Besides,  the  roots  are  easily  de- 
stroyed if  the  stems  are  taken  off  below  the 
first  joint,  this  much  being  required  for  their 
vitality.  For  this  reason,  also,  it  is  necessary 
to  be  careful  to  set  the  blade  of  the  mower  suffici- 
ently high  to  leave  the  first  joint  intact.  The 
roots  of  this  grass  are  both  fibrous  and  bulbous. 
Its  bulbs  have  but  few  rootlets  starting  out 
from  them,  the  plant  depending  for  its  support 
principally  on  the  store  of  nourishment  laid  up  within  the  bulbs. 
If,  therefore,  the  stem  is  shaved  off  entirely,  the  bulbs,  being  de- 
prived of  all  nourishment,  throw  out  tubers  all  around,  and  these 
send  up  shoots,  seeking  food  in  the  air,  but  they  are  feeble,  and,  if 
spared  by  the  frosts  of  winter,  are  so  crippled  they  fall  an  easy 
prey  to  the  scorching  suns  of  summer.  For  the  same  reason  pas- 


(  12) 

hiring  will  effectually  destroy  a  timothy  meadow,  if  persisted  in. 
The  stock  will  bite  off  all  fojiage,  leaving  the  roots  to  perish,  or  if 
hogs  are  allowed  to  run  on  it,  they  quickly  discover  and  destroy 
the  succulent  bulbs.  When  about  half  the  blossoms  turn  brown, 
and  at  least  the  upper  part  of  the  spike  or  head  is  still  purple,  a 
yellowish  spot  will  make  its  appearance  at  or  near  the  first  joint, 
and  this  is  the  true  indication  for  the  harvest  to  begin,  for  this  spot 
will  soon  extend,  if  allowed  to  remain,  to  the  spike,  and  the  whole 
plant  will  be  a  stem  of  wood.  The  appearance  of  this  spot  also 
tells  of  the  maturity  of  the  bulbs,  and  they  are  not  so  liable  to 
injury  from  cutting  as  before.  If  this  joint  is  left,  the  tubers  will 
remain  green  and  fresh  during  the  entire  winter ;  but  their  destruc- 
tion is  inevitable  if  it  is  taken  away  at  any  time  during  the  year 
These  remarks  do  not  apply  with  equal  force  to  timothy  when  it 
has  a  fibrous  root,  but  the  two  kinds  are  so  intimately  mingled  there 
is  no  practical  difference. 

Timothy  stands  at  the  head  of  all  grasses  in  its  nutritive  quali- 
ties. A  specimen  taken  from  the  field,  according  to  the  above 
directions,  yielded  on  analysis:  Water,  57.21;  flesh- forming  prin- 
ciples, 4.86;  fat- forming  principles,  1.50;  heat- producing  principles, 
22.85;  woody  fibre,  11.82,  and  mineral  matters,  2.26,  in  one  hun- 
dred parts. — (Way.)  A  comparison  of  its  relative  value  as  a  food 
will  be  made  further  on.  But  the  above  nutritious  specimen  will 
never  be  produced,  if  the  plant  is  allowed  to  stand  too  long.  On 
the  contrary,  as  a  food  .it  would  become  woody  and  worthless,  all 
its  starch,  sugar,  albuminoids  and  other  nutritive  principles  having 
been  deposited  in  the  seeds,  and  the  stalk  is  nothing  more  than  a 
woody  support. 

Cattle  fed  on  this  kind,  or  on  hay  that  has  been  allowed  to  get 
wet  and  ferment,  will  quickly  lose  their  flesh  and  the  hair  become 
rough. 

Timothy  is  exhaustive  to  the  soil,  and,  being  a  heavy  feeder,  re- 
quires attention.  No  crop  can  be  raised  on  ground  that  will  not 
extract  a  certain  amount  of  its  vitality,  but  unless  something  is 
taken  the  farmer  would  receive  nothing.  Therefore,  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  farmer  to  supply  by  manure  the  deficiency  that  occurs ;  and 
this  is  made  the  more  apparent  from  the  fact  that  the  man  who 
applies  the  most  manure  will  invariably  get  the  best  returns  for  his 
labor.  On  good  rich  land — bottom  is  best — timothy  will  make  two 


(  13) 

tons  per  acre.  By  a  heavy  application  of  compost  or  manure  from 
the  barn-yard,  it  can  be  raised  to  five  tons,  and  the  straw  length- 
ened from  two  feet,  its  usual  height,  to  five  and  even  six  feet,  and 
from  the  same  cause,  the  heads  from  two  inches  to  twelve  inches  in 
length. 

It  is  a  great  and  sure  bearer  of  seeds,  but  the  seeds  are  easily 
destroyed  by  heat  in  the  mow,  unless  precautions  are  used  in  caring 
for  them. 

The  time  of  sowing  is  various.  If  sown  in  the  spring  it  is  liable 
to  be  killed  by  summer  heat,  and  if  sown  late  in  autumn  it  runs 
the  same  risk  with  frost.  It  is,  therefore,  bad  policy  to  run  the 
risk  of  not  only  losing  the  cost  of  seed,  but  also  the  labor  of  pre- 
paring the  ground.  Much  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the 
farmer  in  selecting  a  suitable  day,  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  it  should 
always  be  sown  in  the  fall,  early  enough  to  get  a  root  strong  enough 
to  resist  winter  killing.  If  sown  in  a  very  dry  soil,  it  will  incur 
the  further  danger  of  germinating  from  dews,  and  of  being  killed 
by  the  sun.  Select  the  time  when  the  ground  is  moist,  and  the 
days  not  excessively  hot.  The  quantity  of  seed  per  acre  is  various, 
but  the  sower  who  spares  his  seed  will  reap  in  proportiou.  Not 
less  than  twelve  pounds,  if  mixed,  and  if  alone,  at  least  three  gal- 
lons of  clean  seed  will  be  required  to  secure  a  good  stand.  But  it 
will  be  better  to  test  the  seeds  beforehand,  for  a  failure  from  bad 
seeds  will  cause  a  year's  delay. 

Timothy  does  best  on  rich  alluvial,  moist  land;  but  any  rich 
land,  whether  upland  or  lowland,  will  produce  it,  if  proper  atten- 
tion is  given.  Wherever  calcareous  loam  exists  it  can  be  profitably 
put  to  timothy.  It  will  not  grow  to  any  extent  at  a  greater  eleva- 
tion than  4,000  feet  above  the  sea,  but  on  any  less  height  there  is 
no  grass  capable  of  greater  diffusion. 

In  order  to  secure  a  stand  of  timothy,  the  following  simple  rules 
may  be  adopted : 

1.  Be  sure  of  your  seed  by  testing  them  before  sowing. 

2.  Put  plenty  of  seed  on  the  ground  ;  if  too  thin,  it  will  require 
time  to  turf  over;  if  too  thick,  it  will  quickly  adjust  itself. 

3.  Sow  early  enough  to  enable  the  seed  to  get  a  foothold  before 
winter  sets  in.     Late  fall  and  winter  sowings  are  always  precarious. 
September  is  best,  if  there   is  no    drought,  otherwise  wait  for  a 


(  14) 

4.  Unlike  other  grasses,  timothy  will  not  admit  of  pasturage. 
The  nipping  of  stock  will  destroy  the  bulbs. 

5.  NEVER  CUT  THE  SWARD  BELOW  THE  FIEST  JOINT. 

6.  Be  sure  to  have  the  ground  well  pulverized. 

It  is  necessary  to  impress  one  idea  that  has  already  been  stated. 
Do  not  allow  the  timothy  to  stand  longer  than  the  time  that  the 
yellow  spot  appears  near  the  first  joint,  as  it  will  from  that  time 
ripen  very  rapidly,  and  be  worthless.  General  Harding,  before  the 
Farmers'  Club,  called  attention  to  the  fact,  that  the  greatest  enemy 
of  timothy  is  blue-grass.  If  stock  is  allowed  to  pass  from  a  blue- 
grass  pasture  at  will,  to  a  meadow  of  timothy,  they  will  quickly 
sow  the  meadow  in  blue-grass,  and  the  latter  will,  in  a  short  time 
supersede  the  former.  In  the  meeting  above  alluded  to,  timothy 
being  the  subject  of  discussion,  Gen.  Harding  being  called  on  for 
his  views,  said  "  he  had  had  considerable  experience  with  timothy. 
He  regarded  timothy  the  most  valuable  of  all  the  grasses  for  hay, 
and  more  especially  for  hay  that  must  be  handled  or  shipped  or 
baled.  He  had  tried  several  varieties.  Before  the  introduction  of 
blue-grass  our  timothy  meadows  lasted  almost  without  limit,  and 
produced  year  after  year  for  twenty  or  thirty  years.  But  since  we 
have  been  growing  blue- grass  more  extensively,  it  gets  into  our 
timothy  meadows  and  in  a  few  years  will  root  it  out ;  so  now,  in 
buying  my  timothy  seed,  I  look  more  carefully  for  blue-grass  seed 
than  for  the  seed  of  any  noxious  weeds.  I  would  rather  sow  dock 
— I  would  rather  sow  anything  in  my  timothy  than  blue-grass. 
Still  I  value  blue-grass  in  its  place  as  the  first  of  grasses,  yet  it 
causes  more  trouble  in  our  meadows  than  anything  else.  Again, 
our  seasons  have  become  dryer,  and  there  is  much  greater  difficulty 
in  getting  a  stand  of  timothy  than  formerly.  "When  I  commenced 
sowing  meadows,  I  had  no  trouble  in  getting  a  stand  of  timothy, 
whether  I  sowed  the  seed  in  the  fall  or  in  the  spring,  whether  I 
sowed  in  the  fall  with  wheat  or  barley,  or  in  the  spring  with  my 
oats.  For  many  years  I  never  failed.  Now  I  sow  in  the  fall,  and 
the  timothy  is  frequently  winter-killed ;  I  sow  in  the  spring,  and  it 
is  killed  by  the  long  droughts  of  summer.  But  these  difficulties 
should  not  deter  us;  we  should  continue  to  sow,  and  persevere  until 
we  get  a  stand.  Hence  if  I  sow  in  the  fall  and  my  timothy  is 
killed,  I  sow  in  the  spring;  if  it  is  then  killed,  I  sow  again  and 


(  15  ) 

again  until  I  succeed.  I  have  never  given  up,  and  have  never  en- 
tirely failed  after  repeated  efforts.  I  got  a  good  stand  of  timothy 
many  years  ago  with  a  gallon  of  seed  to  the  acre,  now  I  would  rec- 
ommend not  less  than  one  and  a  half  gallons,  or  even  a  peck  of 
seed  to  the  acre.  Again,  the  better  the  stand  you  get,  and  the 
thicker  your  grass  comes  up,  the  more  will  it  keep  out  the  weeds. 
The  white  blossom,  like  the  blue-grass,  has  also  increased  largely, 
and  seems  to  be  yet  increasing.  That  is  a  troublesome  weed  for 
our  meadows,  still  it  is  not  as  pernicious  as  it  seems  to  the  inex- 
perienced. True,  you  cannot  sell  white  blossom  in  the  market,  but 
if  you  expect  to  consume  the  hay  at  home,  and  make  your  timothy 
with  a  large  amount  of  white  blossom  in  it,  you  will  find  you  will 
have  good  hay.  Stock  will  eat  it,  and  readily;  mules  and  cattle 
seeming  to  do  almost  as  well  upon  it  as  upon  the  timothy  alone. 

"  I  know  that  some  differ  from  me  in  considering  the  white  blos- 
som as  troublesome  as  any  other  plant,  and  throw  it  away.  I  have 
some  hands  to  run  along  the  windrow  and  pick  out  the  white  blos- 
soms, and  make  hay  of  the  white  blossoms  alone.  It  pays  very  well 
for  the  labor  of  separating  it.  I  will  not  throw  the  white  blossom 
away,  for  it  is  valuable.  I  stack  it  in  my  pastures  and  let  the  cat- 
tle go  to  it  at  will  during  the  winter.  I  also  stack  my  straw,  and 
that  helps  the  cattle. 

"  Now,  what  is  the  proper  time  to  cut  timothy  ?  Some  would 
say  as  soon  as  it  blooms ;  others  would  say  after  it  has  bloomed  and 
the  bloom  has  fallen.  If  I  could  cut  it  all  on  the  day  I  thought  it 
would  make  the  best  hay,  I  would  cut  it  just  about  the  time  it  has 
lost  the  largest  portion  of  its  bloom.  If  you  cut  it  too  green — like 
green  fodder — the  stalk  will  shrivel  and,  after  being  cured,  the 
stalk  will  break  short;  but  if  allowed  to  get  a  little  riper  the  stalk 
will  bend. 

"How  much  sun  should  it  have?  This  is  a  question  that  can 
only  be  determined  by  experience.  The  proper  time  to  put  it  up  is 
when  it  has  had  as  little  sun  as  possible,  so  you  are  assured  it  will 
not  mould.  If  there  is  too  much  moisture  in  it,  it  will  mould,  and 
thereby  injure  the  hay.  If  the  weather  is  settled,  it  will  cure  bet- 
ter in  cocks,  but  all  these  things  must  be  governed  by  circum- 
stances." 


(  16  ) 

It  is  highly  propable  that  the  reason  Gen.  Hardings  meadows 
fail  in  six  or  seven  years,  is  the  fact,  he  admits,  of  pasturing  them. 
It  is  a  well  ascertained  fact  that  timothy  will  not  bear  pasturing, 
and  attention  to  this  and  leaving  the  first  joint  uncut  will  most 
probably  make  our  meadows  again  live  twenty  or  thirty  years. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Stock  Breeders'  Association  in  February, 
1878,  Gen.  W.  H.  Jackson  said  that  the  best  forerunner  of  timothy 
is  Hungarian  grass.  If  this  is  sown  in  the  summer  and  harvested 
in  August  or  September,  and  timothy  sown  upon  the  stubble  and 
harrowed  in,  the  best  stand  could  be  obtained.  The  Hungarian 
grass  destroys  all  noxious  weeds,  and  gives  a  certain  degree  of  com- 
pactness to  the  soil  necessary  to  secure  a  good  stand  of  timothy. 
RED-TOP—HERD'S  G-RASS— (Agrostis  mlgaris.) 

It  was  introduced  from  England,  where  it  was  known  as  Bent 
grass.  When  first  cultivated  it  went  by  the  name  of  English  grass. 
There  are  many  species  now  raised  in  England,  which  are  still 
known  as  Fine  Bent.  It  is  scattered  over  the  whole  State,  and  but 
few  old  pastures  are  free  from  it,  but  there  it  is  so  dwarfed  by  close 
grazing  and  treading  that  it  shows  to  but  little  advantage.  It  is 
commonly  called  in  these  situations  fine-top. 

Next  in  importance  to  timothy  as  a  meadow  grass  stands  Herd's 
grass.  Unlike  the  former,  it  also  makes  a  good  grazing  grass — in 
fact,  grazing  is  necessary  to  its  preservation,  as,  if  allowed  to  go  to 
seed  a  few  years,  it  dies  out.  It  loves  a  moist  soil,  and  on  swampy 
places  that  will  grow  scarcely  anything  else,  Herd's  grass  will 
thrive  wonderfully. 

It  is  the  most  permanent  grass  we  have,  and  by 
means  of  its  long,  creeping  roots,  will,  even  if  sown 
too  thin,  quickly  take  possession  of  the  ground. 
It  is  greedily  eaten  while  young  and  tender,  in  the 
spring,  by  all  kinds  of  stock,  and  affords  a  fine 
nourishing,  hay,  though  in  less  quantity  per  acre 
than  timothy.  It  grow=*  from  two  to  three  feet 
high,  and  with  its  purplish  panicles,  when  in  full 
blooin,  presents  a  most  charming  sight  in  its  soft, 
feathery  undulations. 

It  is  oftener  mixed  with  other  grasses  than  sown 
alone,  especially  with  timothy  and  clover.      But  it 
fails  to  come  into  harvest  as  early  as  clover,  and  the  same  objections 


(  17) 

may  be  urged  against  it  that  are  to  timothy.  It  yields,  on  moist 
bottom  land,  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  tons  per  acre,  but  on  up- 
lands it  is  not  a  good  producer.  On  thin  lands  it  will  not  gain  a 
sufficient  height  to  justify  harvesting  at  all.  It  withstands  the 
effects  of  drought  much  better  than  timothy.  In  England  it  is 
supposed  to  grow  best  on  sandy  soils.  Its  effects  when  fed  to  milk 
cows  are  to  greatly  enrich  and  yellow  the  butter,  and  European 
dairymen  think  they  cannot  do  without  it  in  their  pastures.  By 
the  Wopurn  experiments  at  the  time  of  flowering,  it  yielded  10,209 
pounds  of  grass,  which  lost  in  drying  5,615  pounds,  and  furnished 
532  pounds  of  nutritive  matter.  Cut  when  the  seeds  were  ripe,  it 
yielded  9,528  pounds  of  grass,  which  lost  exactly  half  its  weight 
in  drying,  and  afforded  only  251  pounds  of  nutritious  matter. 
From  this  it  would  appear  that  this  grass  is  doubly  as  valuable  for 
feeding  purposes  when  cut  at  the  time  of  flowering. 

For'  stopping  gullies  in  old  fields  it  is  superior  to  blue-grass,  as 
it  will  throw  its  long,  searching  roots  from  the  top  down  the  slop- 
ing banks  of  the  washes,  and  fasten  to  every  patch  of  good  soil  at 
the  bottom,  and  then  from  every  joint  starts  up  a  stalk  to  get  a 
fresh  hold.  It  affords  a  very  good  aftermath  from  which,  in  wet 
falls,  a  fair  crop  may  be  cut.  Unless  well  tramped  in  the  late  fall 
it  is  liable  to  form  tufts  that  rise  out  of  the  soil  from  the  effects  of 
freezing,  and  is  destroyed.  Therefore,  after  cutting,  let  on  the 
stock,  and  their  feet  will  insure  a  good  turf,  and  besides,  will  de- 
stroy weeds.  But  the  cattle  should  be  taken  off  the  pasture  after 
rains  have  filled  the  earth  with  water,  or  it  will  become  too  rough 
for  the  proper  use  of  the  mower. 

The  quantity  of  seed  per  acre,  when  sown  alone,  is  about  one 
bushel.  The  seed  is  usually  sold  in  the  chaff,  it  being  difficult  to 
separate  it. 

The  time  for  havesting  is  when  it  is  in  full  flower,  or  as  soon 
thereafter  as  possible,  when  all  the  elements  that  are  necessary  to 
form  the  seeds  are  still  in  the  stalk  and  leaves.  Left  to  ripen  fully 
it  becomes  woody  and  innutritious. 

Many  pursue  the  plan  of  sowing  the  timothy  and  Herd's  grass 
together,  as  they  ripen  together,  and  the  Herd's  grass  being  much 
lower  than  the  former  fills  in  well,  and  the  two  will  make  a  more 

2 


(  18) 

abundant  yield  than  either  separate.     But  one  requires  pasturage, 
and  that  will  destroy  the  other. 

It  should  be  sown  in  September,  unless  sown  on  wheat, :and  then 
as  early  as  practicable,  to  enable  the  roots  to  get  sufficient  depth  to 
resist  the  cold  of  winter.  If  sown  alone  it  will,  like  timothy,  make 
about  a  half  crop  the  ensuing  year,  but  it  is  usually  sown  with 
grain,  wheat,  rye  or  barley.  There  are  a  great  many  marshy  spots 
in  Tennessee,  especially  on  the  Tennessee  and  Mississippi  rivers,  so 
full  of  water  that  nothing  can  be  cultivated  on  them,  and  on  these 
fine  crops  of  Herd's  grass  could  be  secured  every  year,  which  would 
certainly  be  far  preferable  to  allowing  them  to  run  to  waste. 
These  bottoms  are  usually  of  surprising  fertility,  and  would  go  far 
to  supply  the  great  deficiency  of  hay,  and  obviate  the  necessity  of 
importing  from  our  more  thrifty  Northern  neighbors.  It  is  a  per- 
ennial, and  if  properly  tramped  every  autumn  will  keep  good  an  in- 
definite length  of  time. 

This  grass  also  finds  a  most  congenial  soil  throughout  West  Ten- 
nessee, in  many  places  in  that  division  of  the  State  attaining  the 
height  of  five  feet.  It  is  probably  better  adapted  to  all  the  soils  of 
the  State  than  any  other  grass.  I  have  seen  it  growing  in  princely 
luxuriance  6000  feet  above  the  sea  on  the  bald  places  of  the  Unaka 
Mountains.  It  flourishes  upon  the  slopes  and  in  the  valleys  of 
East  Tennessee.  It  yields  abundantly  upon  the  sandstone  soils  of 
the  Cumberland  Table-land,  and  beautifies  the  rolling  surfaces  of 
the  Highland  Eim.  In  the  Central  Basin  it  sparkles  in  the  beauty 
of  its  verdure,  and  is  second  only  to  red  clover  and  timothy  as  a 
meadow  grass.  No  other  grass  is  sown  so  much  for  hay  upon  the 
lands  lying  at  the  western  base  of  the  Cumberland  Table-land.  In 
Warren  county  especially  it  is  highly  esteemed  for  its  longevity  and 
fruitfulnes. 


(  19  ) 
ORCHARD  GRASS— (DaetyH*  Glomerata.) 

Whether  a  native  of  America  or  Europe, 
or  indigenous  to  both  countries,  it  is  well 
known  that  orchard  grass  is  diffused  more 
extensively  than  any  other  grass,  growing  all 
over  Europe,  the  northwestern  parts  of 
Africa,  and  in  Asia  Minor.  Known  as  cock's 
foot  in  England  for  many  centuries,  it  was 
not  appreciated  as  a  forage  plant  until  sent  to 
that  country  from  Virginia.  It  is  a  peren- 
nial, and  grows  upon  congenial  soils  any- 
where between  35  and  47  degrees  north  lati- 
tude. It  likes  a  soil  moderately  dry,  porous, 
fertile  and  inclined  to  be  sandy.  On  stiff 
clay  soils  retentive  of  moisture,  the  roots  do  not  acquire  such  a 
vigor  as  to  give  a  luxuriant  top  growth.  The  feebleness  of  the 
roots  upon  such  a  soil  makes  them  liable  to  be  thrown  up  by  the 
earth.  It  may  be  grown  successfully  on  a  lean,  sterile  soil,  by  a 
top  dressing  of  stable  manure,  yielding  during  a  moderately  wet 
season  from  two  to  three  crops.  In  its  rapid  growth  in  early  spring 
lies  one  of  its  chief  merits,  furnishing  a  rich  bite  for  cattle  earlier 
than  almost  any  other  grass.  It  also  grows  later  in  the  fall.  It  is 
very  hardy  when  well  set,  makes  a  great  yield,  grows  rapidly  and 
vigorously  upon  suitable  soils,  supplies  a  rich,  nutritious  hay,  which, 
compared  with  timothy,  is  in  value  in  the  proportion  of  7  to  10. 
It  starts  out  early  in  spring,  and  comes  into  blossom  about  the  time 
of  red  clover.  It  attains  a  height,  upon  good  soils,  of  three  feet, 
though  upon  soils  of  great  fertility  it  sometimes  reaches  the  height 
of  five  feet.  After  being  cut,  it  springs  up  rapidly,  sometimes  in 
rainy  weather  growing  three  or  four  inches  within  a  week.  This 
quality  of  rapid  growth  unfits  it  for  a  lawn  grass  unless  cut  every 
week. 

Nevertheless,  this  very  quality  makes  it  stand  unrivalled  as  a 
pasture  grass.  The  Hon.  John  Stanton  Gould  says  in  his  essay' 
upon  this  grass :  "  The  laceration  produced  by  the  teeth  of  cattle, 
instead  of  injuring,  actually  stimulates  it  to  throw  out  additional 
leaves,  yielding  the  tenderest  and  sweetest  herbage." 

The  chief  objection  to  orchard  grass  is  that  it  grows  too  much  in 
stools  or  tussocks.  This  can  be  remedied  by  sowing  a  larger  quan- 


(20) 

tity  of  seed  per  acre.  Never  less  than  two  bushels  (14  pounds  to 
the  bushel)  per  acre  should  be  sown,  and  two  and  a  half  bushels 
would  even  be  preferable.  Mr.  Gould  says  that  if  the  meadows  are 
dragged  over  in  spring  with  a  fine  toothed  harrow,  and  then  rolled, 
this  disposition  will  be  completely  overcome.  The  disposition  to 
stool  can  also  be  checked  by  sowing  with  other  grasses.  A  half 
gallon  of  clover  seed,  one  gallon  of  Herd's  grass,  and  two  bushels 
of  orchard  grass,  per  acre,  sown  about  the  25th  of  March,  in  our 
latitude,  will  make  an  excellent  pasture.  By  the  middle  of  June, 
upon  good  soils,  the  amount  of  forage  will  equal  the  best  fields  of 
clover.  It  should  not,  however,  be  pastured  the  first  season  until 
August,  however  tempting  it  may  be.  In  this  many  Tennessee 
farmers  have  made  a  mistake.  By  pasturing  before  the  roots  are 
well  established  much  of  the  grass  is  pulled  up  and  destroyed.  I 
have  met  with  many  farmers  who  condemned  the  orchard  grass  for 
want  of  hardiness  and  endurance,  but  in  every  case  the  fault  was 
with  the  farmer  himself  in  pasturing  too  early. 

Orchard  grass  grows  well  in  the  shade,  and  hence  its  name.  It 
withstands,  hot,  dry  weather  better  than  any  other  valuable  grass. 
Three  good  crops  of  leafy  hay,  if  the  weather  is  seasonable,  may 
be  counted  on  after  the  first  year,  but  only  one  will  blossom. 

The  analysis  by  Prof  Way  of  the  green  grass  in  blossom  gives 
the  following  result  : 

Per  cent. 
Water...  .............................................................................  ,70.00 

Fatty  matter  ............................................................................  0  94 

Flesh  formers  .....................................................  '"  406 

Heat  producers  .................................................  ]g  3Q 

Woody  fibre  .............................................  1011 

Ash  .............. 

...........................................................  1.59 


Analysis  by  Scheven  and  Ritthausan  gives  : 
Water  ..... 

Fat  .................  :;:;  ............................................................  65-°° 

Flesh  formers  ......................... 

Heat  producers  ............................ 

Woody  fibre  .............................  ....................................  *~ 

Ash  .........  ....................................  16-10 

.............................  ............................................  2.40 


(  21  ) 

The  hay  made  of  orchard  grass,  as  analyzed  by  Wolff  and  Knop, 
gives : 

Water ^43 

Organic   matter 81.1 

Ash 4.6 

Albuminoids 11,6 

Carbohydrates 40.7 

Crude  fibre 28.9 

Fat 2.7 

It  is  of  great  importance  that  the  seed  from  hardy  plants  be 
sown.  lu  no  department  of  agriculture  does  the  old  maxim  "  like 
.produces  like"  obtain  in  a  greater  degree  than  in  this  grass.  Seed 
from  weakly,  sickly  plants  will  produce  the  same  kind  of  offspring, 
however  fertile  the  soil  may  be.  Messrs.  Lawson  &  Son,  by  select- 
ing the  best  seed,  and  sowing  for  several  years  none  but  the  best 
of  each  generation,  established  a  new  variety  of  orchard  grass, 
known  by  its  great  size  and  vigor  as  the  giant  cock's  foot.  Let 
farmers  be  careful,  therefore,  in  saving  seed  to  sow  from  the  most 
vigorous  growth. 

The  reason  why  so  many  bare  spots  are  seen  in  pastures  and 
meadows  of  this  grass  is  due  to  two  causes:  First — The  land  is 
generally  not  half  prepared  to  receive  the  seed ;  and  second,  there 
is  a  penny  wise  and  pound  foolish  policy  in  sowing  too  few  seed. 
Let  the  land  be  well  broken  by  deep  and  thorough  plowing,  and 
then  be  finely  pulverized  by  repeated  harrowings.  Sow  the  seed, 
the  thicker  the  better,  and  run  a  light  brush  or  harrow  over  the 
land  so  as  to  cover  the  seed  slightly.  To  sum  the  whole  matter  up, 
"  plow  the  land  deep,  pulverize  the  soil  well,  be  generous  as  to  the 
quantity  of  seed,  let  that  seed  be  good,  sow  it  evenly,  give  the  land 
as  good  treatment  afterwards  as  is  given  to  meadow  lands  in 
timothy." 

Its  chief  superiority  over  timothy  lies  in  the  value  of  its  after- 
math. It  will  improve  under  depasturing  when  a  timothy  meadow 
would  be  rendered  worthless. 

To  sum  up  the  merits  of  this  grass : 

1.  It  is  better  suited  to  every  variety  of  soil  than  any  other. 

2.  It  will  grow  with  greater  rapidity  than  any  other  grass,  and 
for  this  reason  will  sustain  a  large  number  of  animals,  and  is  ex- 
cellent for  soiling  purposes. 


(  22) 

3.  It  will   grow  in  the  shade.     This  quality  will   enable  the 
farmer  to  utilize  their  woodlands  as  pasture,  and  so  make  them  a 
source  of  profit. 

4.  It  will  resist  drought  better  than  any  other  grass.     The  hot 
summers  make  this  a  very  valuable  quality  in  any  grass.     Often 
in  July  and  August  the  pastures  become  so  parched  as  to  afford  but 
a  small  amount  of  grazing.     Orchard   grass   then   comes  to  the 
rescue  and  supplies  the  deficiency. 

5.  It  is  both  a  pasture  and  a  hay  grass.     After  a  crop  of  hay 
has  been  taken  off  in  June,  the  aftermath  will  furnish  a  good  pas- 
ture throughout  the  remainder  of  the  summer. 

6.  It  may  be  sown  in  the  spring  or  fall  with  small  grain  or 

alone.  It  is  best  not  to  sow  it  with  grain,  as 
the  extra  production  of  grass,  when  sown  alone, 
is  worth  more  than  the  grain  and  grass  grown 
together. 


ENGLISH  RYE  GRASS.— (Lolium  perenne.) 


This  was  the  first  grass  cultivated  in  England, 
and  is  a  great  favorite,  occupying  the  same  posi- 
tion there  that  timothy  does  with  us.  It  is  but 
little  cultivated  in  the  United  States,  though 
some  successful  experiments  have  been  made  with 
it  in  Tennessee.  It  is  of  quick  growth,  and 
will  sometimes  yield  forty  bushels  of  seed  per 
acre.  It  produces  a  nutritious  herbage.  There 
are  no  less  than  seventy  varieties  produced  in 
England. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  species  of  this  grass, 
is  the  Lolium  Italicum  mentioned  below. 


(  23) 
ITALIAN  BYE  QRASS.-(Zo«wm  Italicwn.) 

Prof.  Way  gives  the  following  analysis  of  this  grass: 
Water,  75.61;  flesh- forming  principles,  2.45;  fatty  mat- 
ters, .80;  heat-producing  principles,  14.11;  woody  fibre, 
4.82;  mineral  substances,  2.21. 

This  grass  has  been  lately  introduced  from  Europe, 
where  it  is  said  to  be  more  universally  adapted  to  all 
sorts  of  climates  than  any  other  grass,  and  is  very  pop- 
ular there.  It  grows  from  two  to  three  feet  high,  and 
on  moist,  rich  laud,  will  perhaps  bear  cutting  as  fre- 
quently as  a  soiling  or  green  forage  crop,  as  any  other 
grass,  affording  a  succession  of  green  cuttings  until  late 
in  the  fall.  It  can  be  forced  by  manures  and  irrigation 
to  a  greater  extent  than  any  other  known  species  of 
hay. 

However,  as  can  be  seen  from  its  analysis,  it  has, 
when  green,  nearly  half  less  nutrient  properties  than 
timothy,  and  unless  the  farmer  wishes  to  cut  it  as  a 
green  food,  it  has  no  advantages  over  the  latter.  It  is 
an  annual  with  a  fibrous  root,  and  bears  grazing  well. 
The  time  of  sowing  is  early  fall,  and  ten  pounds  of  seed 
are  required  per  acre,  a  bushel  weighing  eighteen  pounds. 
It  is  a  valuable  grass  for  Southern  farmers,  where  hay 
is  scarce  and  high.  Being  sown  in  the  fall,  the  farmer 
will  be  enabled  to  cut  it  early  in  the  spring,  thus  giving 
the  stock  a  change  from  corn  alone  to  succulent  hay. 
It  has  been  fully  tested  in  Georgia,  and  has  given  great 
satisfaction.  It  gives  a  fine  color  to  the  butter  of  cows 
fed  on  it,  and  they  eat  it  with  great  relish.  It  withstands  the  hot- 
test suns  of  summer,  as  well  as  the  frosts  of  the  severest  winter. 
It  must  be  sown  alone,  as  it  will  quickly  choke  and  destroy  clover 
or  other  grasses.  Its  yield  per  acre,  according  to  received  authority, 
is  immense.  Mr.  Dickens,  of  England,  sowed  it  on  a  stiff,  clay 
soil,  well  manured,  cut  it  ten  times  during  one  year — the  first  time 
ten  inches  in  March;  April  13th  as;aiu;  May  4th  a  third  time; 
May  25th  a  fourth  time;  June  14th  again;  July  22d  a  sixth  time, 
with  ripe  seed  and  three  loads  of  hay  to  the  acre.  Immediately 
after  each  cutting  it  was  manured  with  liquid  manure,  the  produce 
of  each  crop  increasing  with  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere, 


(  24) 

from  three  quarters  of  a  load,  the  first  cutting,  to  three  loads  the 
last.  He  discontinued  manuring  now,  thinking  its  growth  would 
be  terminated  in  bearing  seed,  but  he  afterwards  cut  four  crops  from 
it.  On  the  26th  of  January  following,  it  measured  sixteen  inches 
in  height.  The  last  cutting  was  October  30th,  and  on  the  8th  of 
April  a  crop  of  twenty-two  inches  high  was  cut  from  it.  "  I  was 
desirous  to  know  the  exact  amount  taken  per  acre  for  the  year,  and 
it  amounted,  on  a  careful  measuring  and  weighing  of  green  hay,  to 
thirteen  tons  and  eighteen  hundred  and  twenty-seven  pounds  per 
acre !"  (Coleman's  European  Agriculture.) 

It  presents  a  most  charming  view,  with  its  broad,  dark  green 
foliage,  and  especially  in  a  dry  year,  when  vegetation  is  parched  up 
all  around,  it  does  not  show  any  signs  of  losing  its  fresh,  living, 
luxuriant  growth.  Although  an  annual,  a  meadow  of  this  grass 
may  be  made  perennial  by  scattering  fresh  seed  over  the  ground 
every  second  year,  and  scratching  it  with  a  harrow  with  sharp 
teeth.  Its  unusual  ability  to  withstand  the  vicissitudes  of  heat  and 
cold  would  make  it  a  desirable  grass  in  any  thirsty  soil,  as  well  as 
in  moist  ones,  and  might  possibly  be  a  valuable  addition  to  the  soils 
of  the  western  portion  of  our  State.  At  least  it  is  worthy  of  a 
trial. 

Mr.  Gould  thinks  the  valuable  qualities  of  this  grass  may  be 
summed  up  as  follows: 

"  Its  habit  of  coming  early  to  maturity. 

"  Its  rapid  reproduction  after  cutting. 

"  Its  wonderful  adaptation  to  all  domestic  animals,  which  is  shown 
by  the  extreme  partiality  they  manifest  for  it,  either  alone  or  when 
mixed  with  other  grasses;  whether  when  used  as  green  food  for 
soiling,  as  hay  or  as  pasturage,  in  which  latter  state  its  stem?  are 
never  allowed  to  ripen  and  wither  like  other  grasses. 

"  Its  beneficial  influence  on  the  dairy,  not  only  augmenting  the 
flow  of  milk,  but  improving  the  flavor  of  the  cheese  and  butter. 

"  Its  uncommon  hardiness  and  capacity  to  withstand  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  both  wetness  and  dryness." 

GRAB  OB  CROP  GRASS.— (Pdnicum  Sdnguinate.) 

This  grass  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Eleusine  Indica,  also 
called  crab  grass,  from  its  supposed  resemblance  to  crab. 


(  25) 

This  species  is  so  familiar  to  every  Southern  farmer  that  it  would 
seern  to  be  superfluous  to  notice  it.  But  as  little  as  it  may  appear, 
it  is  one  of  our  most  valuable  indigenous  grasses. 

Crab  grass  is  an  annual,  and  so  full  of  seed  is  it  that  it  is  never 
necessary  to  sow  it.  It  is  never  cultivated  alone,  which  could  be 
easily  done  by  sowing  the  seed  on  a  smooth  surface  about  the  first 
of  June.  When  the  cultivation  of  a  piece  of  ground  ceases,  it  at 
once  takes  possession,  and  soon  furnishes  a  ftne  pasture.  It  grows 
not  only  in  the  cultivated  fields,  but  in  old  pastures,  yards  and 
woods. 

It  is  a  fine  pasture  grass,  although  it  has  but  few  base  leaves,  and 
forms  no  sward,  yet  it  sends  .out  numerous  stems,  branching  freely 
at  the  base.  It  serves  a  most  useful  purpose  in  stock  husbandry. 
It  fills  all  our  cornfields,  and  many  persons  pull  it  out  for  hay.  It 
makes  a  sweet  food,  and  horses  are  exceedingly  fond  of  it,  leaving 
the  best  hay  to  eat  it.  Should  it  be  desired  to  secure  a  good  crop 
of  it,  do  riot  pasture  the  wheat  or  oat  stubble,  except  with  hogs, 
until  the  crab  grass  gets  a  good  start,  then  take  off'  the  hogs  and 
allow  it  to  get  into  bloom,  and  if  the  land  is  good,  there  wilt  be  a 
paying  quantity  to  save.  f  It  should  be  sedulously  guarded  from 


MILLET.— (Panicum  Miliaceum.) 

There  are  a  great  many  varieties  of  this  important  grass,  and 
almost  every  year  adds  to  the  list  of  them.  The  preference  for 
any  variety  is  arbitrary,  yet  there  are  many  advantages-  belonging 
to  all.  But  so  far  as  the  planter  is  concerned,  one  description  serves 
for  all,  as  the  mode  of  culture  is  the  same,  and  the  only  difference 
is  in  the  botanic  characteristics. 

The  first  millet  cultivated  in  this  State  was  the  kind  commonly 
called  Tennessee  millet.  In  a  few  years  the  Hungarian  grass,  or 
millet,  became  popular.  It  does  not  yield  so  much  hay, 'but  it  is 
eaten  with  more  avidity  by.stock.  The  Missouri,  which  is  only  a 
modification  of  the  Tennessee  ;  next  became  the  favorite,  and  then 
the  German  millet  came  and  superseded  all  others.  The  manner 
of  its  introduction  was  in  this  wise  : 

Two  Germans  came  to  Tennessee  in  1861.  One  of  them  brought 
a  little  sack  of  millet  seed,  about  a  quart,  which  he  kept  in  his 
trunk  during  the  war.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  took  it  out  one 


(26) 

day,  and  handing  it  to  a  merchant  on  Market  street  asked  him  to 
give  it  to  some  good  farmer  for  planting.  The  merchant  gave  it  to 
Mr.  James  Allen,  of  Williamson  county,  one  of  the  best  millet  seed 
planters  in  the  State.  The  crop  was  the  admiration  of  the  whole 
country,  and  he  gave  a  half  bushel  to  Dr.  W.  M.  Clark.  He 
planted  the  entire  amount,  and  wrote  concerning  it  so  that  the  seed 
sold  for  from  three  and  a  half  to  five  dollars  a  bushel.  It  has 
taken  precedence  of  all  other  varieties. 

Last  year  the  Department  at  Washington  sent  out  a  new  variety  > 
called  "  pearl  millet. "  It  has  proved,  however,  to  be  a  variety 
that  has  been  planted  for  many  years  in  the  extreme  Southern 
States,  and  is  of  but  little  value  unless  cut  as  a  green  forage.  It 
grows  rapidly  and  is  eaten  with  relish  by  stock.  But  if  allowed  to 
attain  full  growth  or  produce  seed,  it  cannot  be  eaten,  as  it  becomes 
woody.  It  may  be  cut  every  six  weeks  through  the  season,  or 
when  it  gets  high  enough  to  be  reached  by  a  mowing  blade. 

We  will  now  give  its  cultivation  in  general  and  its  use,  which 
embraces  every  variety  as  well  as  one. 

At  one  period,  it  was  deemed  sufficient  food  for  any  stock,  with- 
out the  aid  of  anything  else.  The  fodder  was  hay  and  the  seed  was 
corn.  But  later  investigations  have  demonstrated  the  fact,  that 
when  hay  ripens  to  seed,  its  usefulness  as  a  hay  measurably  ceases. 
Were  stock  fed  exclusively  on  seed-heads,  with  a  sufficiency  of 
good  hay,  they  would  thrive  exceedingly  well,  or  if  the  millet  is 
cut  while  in  the  flower,  or  even  when  the  seed  is  in  the  milky  state, 
and  fed  to  stock  in  combination  with  grain,  they  would  do  well. 
But  even  then,  it  is  much  inferior  to  oats,  timothy,  or  Herd's  grass. 
Its  special  recommendation  is,  that  it  yields  a  larger  proportion  of 
hay  than  other  grasses.  It  requires  a  rich,  dry  soil,  and  will  stand 
almost  any  amount  of  droughts,  seeming  to  dry  up  during  the  heat, 
but  when  it  rains  it  will  start  off  with  renewed  life,  and  do  as  well 
as  ever.  It  makes  large  quantities  of  seed  per  acre,  the  Hungarian 
yielded  30  bushels ;  the  Missouri  40 ;  "the  Tennessee  50 ;  and  the 
German  from  60  to  80  bushels  per  acre.  The  Hungarian  millet  is 
a  better  hay  than  either  of  the  others,  but  its  yield  is  much  less. 
The  Tennessee  millet  perhaps  yields  more  hay  than  either  of  the 
other  three,  but  the  Missouri  has  more  reputation  as  a  feed  for 
cattle.  Should  it  be  wished,  however,  to  sow  for  a  money  crop,  it 
will  be  far  preferable  to  sow  the  German  millet.  The  Hungarian 


(  27) 

has  a  small  head,  a  simple  spike,  while  the  others  have  compound 
spikes,  most  notably  the  German.  It  is  easily  raised,  at  less  cost 
than  corn,  and  makes,  on  good  ground,  nearly  double  as  many 
bushels  as  the  latter  per  acre.  For  all  kinds  of  fowls  it  is  unsur- 
passed, and  it  is  a  powerful  stimulant  to  laying  eggs. 

To  sow  for  hay,  prepare  the  ground  in  a  thorough  manner,  pul- 
verizing it  completely,  and  when  the  ground  is  in  a  sufficiently 
moist  condition,  in  June,  sow  the  seed,  a  bushel  to  the  acre.  Never 
sow  if  the  ground  is  too  dry  or  too  wet.  If  too  dry,  the  seed  near 
the  surface  will  parch  in  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  a  stand  will  fail 
to  appear.  If  too  wet,  the  usual  injury  to  the  land  occurs,  and 
the  crop  "  frenches "  or  turns  yellow  and  dwarfs.  After  sowing, 
harrow  well  and  the  labor  is  over.  The  millet  will  require  seventy 
or  eighty  days  to  mature,  unless  it  is  sown  in  July,  when  it  will 
require  a  few  days  longer. 

Two  crops  of  Hungarian  grass  can  easily  be  raised  from  the  same 
ground  annually.  A  farmer  of  Davidson  county  raised  a  most 
excellent  crop  of  Hungarian  grass,  sown  the  1st  day  of  September 
and  cut  on  the  10th  of  October.  Another,  of  Williamson  county, 
secured  a  good  crop  of  German  millet,  sown  on  the  13th  day  of 
August,  and  cut  on  the  12th  day  of  October. 

For  seed,  prepare  the  ground  as  above  described,  and  then,  with 
a  light  bull-tongue  or  skooter  plow,  run  light  parallel  rows  thirty 
inches  apart,  and  with  a  tin  cup  or  oyster  can  that  has  three  or  four 
holes  punched  in  the  bottom  with  a  4-penny  nail,  walk  rapidly 
along  the  furrow,  and  the  seed  will  sift  into  it  from  the  cup  about 
right  for  a  stand.  Cover  very  lightly  with  a  cotton  coverer,  and 
when  the  seeds  begin  to  sprout,  but  before  they  show  the  sprouts 
above  ground,  run  over  the  field  with  a  harrow,  so  as  to  loosen  the 
ground  and  destroy  weeds.  Afterwards  cultivate  with  a  cultivator 
and  double-shovel,  one  plowing  with  each  being  all  that  is  required. 
It  will  be  necessary  to  thin  out  the  Tennessee  millet  with  hoes, 
leaving  a  mere  thread  of  stems,  as  it  stools  prodigiously ;  but  this 
will  be  unnecessary  with  either  of  the  other  three,  as  they  scarcely 
stool  at  all. 

To  save  it  for  seed,  it  must  be  cut  with  reap-hooks,  taking  just 
enough  of  the  head  to  enable  the  laborer  to  make  it  into  bundles ; 
or  if  preferred,  it  can  be  broken  off  at  the  head,  taking  only  the 
seed,  leaving  the  stubble  to  renew  the  soil.  They  are,  after  treading 


(  28) 

out  in  a  barn  or  on  a  clean  spot,  separated  from  the  chaff  with  an 
ordinary  wheat  fan. 

This  grass  is  of  great  value  to  the  renter  who  has  no  opportunity 
of  continuing  in  possession  of  the  land  long  enough  to  set  a  meadow. 
A  crop  of  millet  is  a  good  forerunner  for  a  meadow,  as  it  destroys 
all  the  noxious  weeds,  and  leaves  the  land  in  a  fine  condition  for 
timothy  or  Herd's  grass. 


QAMA  GRASS— (Tripsacum  dactyloides.) 

This  is  in  some  sections  called  sesame  grass.  It  is  the  largest 
and  one  of  the  most  beautiful  grasses  we  have,  growing  to  the 
height  of  seven  feet.  It  is  abundant  throughout  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  on  moist,  slushy  places.  When  young  and  succulent  it  is 
eaten  with  avidity  by  stock,  and  makes  from  its  rapid  growth,  a 
good  soiling  or  forage  crop,  but  when  it  gets  large  its  stem  is  so 
woody  stock  refuse  to  eat  it.  Its  leaves  are  very  large,  equal  in 
size  to  the  leaves  of  corn,  but  they  are  rough  and  hairy. 

The  grass  may  be  cut  three  or  four  times  a  year,  and  though  in 
its  native  state  it  grows  in  swamps,  it  thrives  almost  equally  well 
on  dry  or  sandy  ridges.  It  will  grow  where  timothy  or  Herd's 
grass  will  not,  and  consequently  is  well  suited  to  a  large  section  of 
our  State.  The  quantity  of  hay  taken  from  one  acre  is  simply  enor- 
mous, and  resembles  very  much  corn  fodder,  and  as  a  hay  is  fully 
equal  to  it,  and  it  can  be  saved  at  one- tenth  the  labor  required  to 
save  fodder.  The  roots  are  strong  and  large  as  cane  roots,  so  let  it 
be  sown  where  it  will  not  be  desired  to  remove  it.  However,  close 
grazing  for  a  few  years  will  destroy  it. 

It  is  very  nutritious  and  succulent  when  cut  green.  The  great 
mass  of  roots  it  has  will  serve  to  open,  loosen  and  improve  the  land 
upon  which  it  grows.  It  should  never  be  allowed  to  shoot  up  the 
seed  stem  when  desired  for  hay. 

It  is  with  difficulty  the  seed  can  be  made  to  vegetate,  and  there- 
fore it  must  be  propagated  by  slips  from  the  roots.  Prepare  the 
land  well,  lay  off  the  furrows  with  a  bull-tongue  plow  two  feet 
apart,  and  drop  a  small  piece  of  root  about  two  feet  apart  in  the 
furrow,  covering  with  a  board.  The  creeping  roots  will  soon  meet, 


(  29  ) 

and  the  ground  is  quickly  turfed  with  it.  It  should  be  planted 
early  in  September.  Of  course,  the  richer  the  land,  whether  upland 
or  bottom,  the  greater  the  yield,  as  the  time  has  never  yet  come 
when  poor  land  will  make  better  crops  of  anything  than  fertile 
land.  I  have  seen  it  growing  with  great  luxuriance  in  Montgomery 
county. 


MEADOW  OAT  GRASS— (Avena  pratensis.) 

This  is  a  perennial  grass,  and  is  a  native  of  Great  Britain.  Tt  is 
one  of  the  few  grasses  that  do  best  on  a  dry  soil.  It  grows  to  a 
height  of  only  eighteen  inches  in  its  native  pastures.  But  here  it 
is  quite  a  different  grass,  and  rises  to  the  height  of  from  five  to  six 
feet.  It  will  not  grow  well  on  moist  soils,  but  on  rich  upland 
or  good  sandy  land  it  grows  with  vigor.  It  deserves  a  place  on 
every  farm,  as  the  hay  is  excellent,  and  is  greedily  eaten  by  stock, 
and  besides,  the  yield  is  extremely  large.  Another  advantage  is 
that  the  seed  will  be  ripe  before  the  hay  turns  yellow,  so  that  not 
only  the  hay  will  be  saved,  but  a  large  amount  of  seed  can  be 
secured ;  upon  a  barn  floor  enough  will  shatter  out  to  supply  the 
wants  of  most  farmers.  Or  if  the  farmer  wishes  to  sell  the  seed, 
he  can  cut  off  the  heads  with  a  cradle  and  let  the  mower  follow  for 
the  hay. 

Should  the  autumn  prove  a  wet  one,  a  second  crop  can  be  cut,  but 
if  there  is  not  sufficient  aftermath  to  justify  cutting  do  not  pasture 
it,  but  allow  it  to  grow  on  as  long  as  it  will,  and  about  Christmas 
it  will  turn  over  and  the  tops  turn  yellow,  all  prepared  for  the 
hungry  stock,  and  it  will  continue  to  sustain  them  until  other 
grasses  take  its  place.  However,  should  it  be  desired  to  use  it  for 
hay  the  succeeding  year,  the  stock  should  be  removed  about  the 
middle  of  February. 

It  will  seed  in  the  fall  after  being  sown  in  the  spring,  which  is 
the  proper  time  to  sow  it.  Sow  two  bushels  per  acre.  The  seed  is 
very  light  and  chaffy.  It  is  a  tussock  grass,  and  does  not  spread 
from  the  roots,  consequently  the  seed  must  be  depended  on  for  a 
stand.  After  the  first  sowing,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  obtain- 
ing seed,  as  the  yield  is  large.  It  affords,  both  for  hay  and  pasture, 
perhaps  more  green  food  than  any  grass  we  have. 


(30) 

SORGHUM— (Halpense.) 

Egyptian  Sugar  Cane,  as  its  proper  name  is,  is  a  daughter  of  the 
Nile,  where  it  grows  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  high.  So  great  is  its 
luxuriance  there  that  it  has  filled  all  the  upper  Nile  so  that  a  canoe 
cannot  be  driven  through  it.  Great  numbers  of  cattle  and  wild 
animals  resort  to  it,  and,  in  fact,  it  is  the  chief  sustenance  of 
ruminants  in  that  country. 

When  young  it  is  very  tender  and  sweet,  the  pith  being. full  of 
8Ugary  juice.  The  leaves  are  as  large  as  corn  fodder,  and  very 
nutritious.  It  has  a  perennial  root,  and  so  vigorous  that  when  once 
planted  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  eradicate  it.  So  care  must  be 
taken  to  plant  it  where  it  is  not  intended  to  be  disturbed.  The 
roots  are  creeping,  and  throw  out  shoots  from  every  joint.  It  is  a 
fine  fertilizer,  and  sown  on  a  piece  of  poor  washed  land,  will,  in  a 
few  years  restore  it  to  its  pristine  fertility.  But  there  is  really  not 
much  difference  where  it  is  sown,  for  a  farmer  once  getting  a  good 
stand,  will  not  want  to  destroy  it.  It  will  bear  cutting  three  or 
four  times  a  year,  and,  in  fact,  it  has  to  be  done,  for  when  it  matures 
the  seed,  the  stem  and  leaves  are  too  course  and  woody  for  use. 

The  ground  must  be  well  prepared  as  in  other  grasses,  and  in 
September,  the  earlier  the  better,  let  it  be  sown  one  bushel  to  the 
acre. 

It  can  be  propagated  also  by  the  roots  by  laying  off  the  rows 
each  way,  and  dropping  a  joint  of  the  root  two  feet  apart  and  cov- 
ering with  a  drag. 

It  gives  the  earliest  pastures  we  have,  preceding  blue  grass  or 
clover  a  month.  Hogs  are  fond  of  the  roots,  and  any  amount  of 
rooting  in  it  will  not  injure  it.  In  fact,  it  is  a  stick  tight.  It  not 
only  thrives  well  on  bottoms,  but  it  will  grow  just  as  well  on  upland, 
and  though  poor  upland  will  make  little  hay,  yet  it  makes  a  fine 
pasture.  It  disappears  in  the  winter  altogether,  but  the  first  warm 
weather  brings  it  up,  and  it  grows  with  astonishing  rapidity.  On 
our  lauds  and  in  our  climate  it  will  grow  from  five  to  seven  feet 
high,  while  in  South  Carolina  it  will  grow  twelve  feet  high. 

For  soiling  purposes  it  is  not  equaled  by  any  grass  in  our  knowl- 
edge, as  it  can  be  cut  every  two  or  three  weeks. 


(31  ) 

Many  persons  object  to  it  on  account  of  its  great  tenacity  of  life, 
matting  the  soil  in  every  direction  with  its  cane-like  roote,  and  the 
rapidity  with  which  it  will  spread  over  a  field,  and  the  difficulty  of 
eradicating  it.  But  these  very  objections  should  be  its  recommen- 
dation to  owners  of  worn-out  fields;  and  if  it  be  desired  to  destroy 
it,  it  is  only  necessary  to  pasture  it  closely  one  year,  and  then  in  the 
fall  turn  the  roots  up  with  a  big  plow  to  the  freezes  of  a  winter, 
renewing  the  breaking  up  once  or  twice  during  the  winter,  and 
then  cultivating  the  next  spring.  The  seeds  are  quite  heavy,  and 
weigh  thirty-  five  pounds  to  the  bushel.  Every  one  who  has  tried  it 
recommends  it  to  the  public.  But  some  allowance  must  be  made 
for  the  partiality  of  friends,  and  it  would  be  well  to  give  it  a  trial 
before  engaging  in  its  culture  to  any  extent.  There  would,  how- 
ever, certainly  be  no  risk  in  sowing  it  upon  those  worn-out  hill 
sides,  so  many  of  which  form  an  unsightly  scar  upon  the  face  of 
nature  in  Tennessee — the  tokens  of  the  past. 

A  proximate  analysis  made  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at 
Washington  gives  : 

Per  cent. 

Oil 2.26 

Wax 61 

Sugar , 7.37 

Gum  and  Dextrine 5.14 

Cellulose '. 25.1 

Amylaceous  cellulose ...  25.87 

Alkali  extract , 15.58 

Albuminoid 13.18 

Ash 4.85 

Analysis  of  the  ash  of  the  Johnson  grass : 

Per  cent. 

Potassium 3.68 

Potassium  oxide 35.72 

Sodium 81 

Calcium  oxide 12.87 

Magnesium  oxide ...  0.73   ' 

Sulphuric  acid 2.96 

Phosphoric  acid 10.44 

Silicic  acid 22.21 

-Chlorine....  4.58 


CLOVER— ( Trifolium  pratense.) 

This  valuable  forage  plant  was 
first  introduced  into  England  in 
1645,  during  the  stormy  times  of 
Charles  I.,  and  rapidly  met  with 
favor  throughout  the  kingdom.  It 
properly  belongs  to  the  leguminous 
family,  which  includes  a  considera- 
ble number  of  other  forage  plants 
that  are  called  artificial  grasses,  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  true  or 
natural  grasses  called  gramineoe. 
The  botanic  name  trifolium  comes 
from  two  latin  words,  ires,  three, 
and  folium,  a  leaf,  and  in  England 
it  is  often  called  trefoil.  It  may 
always  be  known  by  having  three  leaves  in  a  bunch,  and  the  flowers 
in  dense,  oblong,  globular  heads. 

There  is  no  grass,  natural  or  artificial,  that  is  more  useful  to  the 
farmeV  or  stock-grower  than  red  clover.  It  has  been  styled,  with 
some  show  of  reason,  the  corner  stone  of  agriculture,  and  this  not 
only  on  account  of  its  vigorous  vitality,  but  because  it  adapts  itself 
to  a  great  variety  of  soils.  It  is  widely  diffused,  and  abounds  in 
every  part  of  Europe,  in  North  America,  and  even  in  Siberia.  It 
furnishes  an  immense  amount  of  grazing,  yields  an  abundance  of 
nutritious  hay,  and  is  a  profitable  crop,  considered  with  reference 
to  the  seed  alone.  But  beyond  all  these,  it  acts  as  a  vigorous 
ameliorator  of  the  soil,  increasing  more  than  any  other  forage  plant 
the  amount  of  available  nitrogen,  and  so  becomes  an  important 
agent  in  keeping  up  the  productive  capacity  of  the  soil,  and  in- 
creasing the  yield  of  other  crops. 

SOILS   ADAPTED   TO    ITS   GROWTH. 

Red  clover  is  a  biennial  plant,  and  under  judicious  tillage  may 
be  made  a  perennial,  and  is  specially  adapted  to  argillaceous  soils, 
but  it  will  grow  well  upon  sandy  soils,  when  a  "  catch  "  is  secured, 
by  the  application  of  a  top-dressing  of  gypsum  or  barn- yard  ma- 
nure. I  have  seen  it  growing  with  vigor  upon  the  feldspathic  soils 
of  Johnson  county,  upon  the  sandstone  soils  of  the  Cumberland 


(33) 

mountain,  and  upon  the  sandy  loams  of  West  Tennessee,  but  it  finds 
a  more  congenial  soil  in  the  clayey  lands  of  the  valley  of  East  Ten- 
nessee, on  the  red  soils  of  the  Highland  Rim,  and  on  the  limestone 
loams  of  the  Central  Basin. 

The  clayey  lands  of  West  Tennessee  have  no  superior  for  the 
production  of  clover.  It  often  grows  upon  these  lands  from  four  to 
five  feet  in  height,  and  forms  a  mat,  when  it  falls,  of  great  density 
and  thickness.  As  much  as  four  tons  of  clover  hay  have  been 
taken  from  a  single  acre.  Probably  three  fourths  of  the  lands  in 
Tennessee  will  grow  clover  remuneratively,  and  of  the  soils  which 
will  not,  a  large  portion  is  included  in  the  old  gullied  fields  that 
constitute  the  shame  and  mark  the  thriftlessness  of  too  many  of  the 
farmers.  It  may  bo  set  down  as  an  infallible  rule  in  the  State  of 
Tennessee  that  good  farming  and  abundant  clovering  go  together. 

SOWING  CLOVER. 

Clover  may  be  sown  in  the  latitude  of  Tennessee  upon  wheat, 
rye,  or  oat  fields,  or  alone.  Instances  have  been  reported  to  me 
where  a  splendid  stand  was  obtained  by  sowing  after  cultivators  in 
the  last  working  of  corn  in  July.  This  is  unusual,  however.  So 
is  fall  sowing.  The  best  time  to  sow  is  from  the  first  of  January 
until  the  first  of  April.  If  sown  in  January  or  February,  the  seed 
ought  to  be  sown  upon  snow.  This  is  not  only  convenient  in  en- 
abling one  to  distribute  the  seed  evenly  over  the  land,  but  the 
gradual  melting  of  the  snow,  and  the  slight  freezes,  bury  the  seed 
just  deep  enough  to  ensure  rapid  germination  when  the  warm  days 
of  March  come  on.  For  the  same  reason,  if  sown  in  March,  the 
seed  ought  to  be  sown  when  the  ground  is  slightly  crusted  by  a 
freeze.  If  the  sowing  is  deferred  until  too  late  for  frosty  nights, 
the  land  should  be  well  harrowed  and  the  seed  sown  immediately 
after  the  harrow.  It  will  hasten  germination  and  cause  a  larger 
proportion  of  seed  to  grow,  to  harrow  the  land  after  the  seed  is 
sown.  With  oats,  the  seeds  should  be  sown  after  the  last  harrow- 
ing or  brushing,  with  a  slight  after- brushing  to  cover  them. 

A  better  stand  of  clover,  with  less  seed,  may  always  be  secured 
by  sowing  upon  land  prepared  for  clover  alone.  I  have  often  ob- 
tained an  excellent  catch  upon  "galled"  places  by  breaking  the 
land  well,  and  sowing  the  seed  without  any  previous  or  after  har- 
rowing. 
3 


(34) 

Upon  good,  fresh,  rich  soils,  where  clover  has  not  previously 
grown,  one  bushel  for  eight  acres  will  be  sufficient.  If  the  soil  is 
thin  and  unproductive,  one  bushel  for  six  acres  ought  to  be  sown. 
If  the  land  has  been  regularly  rotated  with  clover,  one-half  the 
quantity  of  seed  mentioned  above  will  suffice,  sometimes  much  less. 

The  frequent  failure  to  secure  a  good  stand  of  clover  admonishes 
the  farmers  of  the  State  to  exercise  more  care  in  the  seeding. 
When  sown  late  in  the  spring  many  of  the  seeds  sprout,  and  are 
killed  by  dry  weather.  It  would  be  all  the  better  if  the  clover 
seed  could  be  buried  a  half-inch  (or  even  an  inch  on  loose  soils)  be- 
neath the  surface  after  the  middle  of  March. 

GROWTH   AND   MANURE. 

Red  clover  rarely  makes  much  growth  the  first  season  if  sown 
with  grain.  Should  the  weather  be  very  seasonable  after  harvest, 
and  the  land  fertile,  it  will  sometimes  attain  the  height  of  thirty 
inches  and  put  out  blooms,  making  an  excellent  fall  pasture. 
When  sown  alone  it  will  always  blossom  in  August. 

As  soon  as  it  begins  to  grow,  in  early  spring,  an  application  of 
two  bushels  of  gypsum  or  land  plaster,  upon  granitic  or  sandy  soils, 
is  absolutely  necessary  to  get  a  good  growth. 

Baron  Liebig,  after  numerous  experiments  made  with  gypsum 
upon  clover,  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  the  action  of  gypsum  is 
very  complex;  that  it  indeed  promotes  the  distribution  of  both 
magnesia  and  potash  in  the  soil.  He  thinks  that  gypsum  exercises 
a  chemical  action  upon  the  soil,  which  extends  to  any  depth,  and 
that  in  consequence  of  the  chemical  and  mechanical  modification  of 
the  earth,  particles  of  certain  nutritive  elements  become  accessible 
to  and  available  for  the  clover  plant,  which  were  not  so  before. 

Though  having  my  mind  constantly  directed  to  this  point,  I  have 
rarely  found  an  application  of  gypsum  beneficial  upon  clayey  loams, 
but  its  effects  are  very  apparent  on  strong  limestone  soils,  such  as 
are  found  in  the  Central  Basin.  Red  clover  has  two  growing 
seasons.  It  makes  its  most  vigorous  growth  from  the  1st  of  April 
until  the  15th  of  June,  beginning  to  bloom  usually  in  the  central 
parts  of  the  State  about  the  15th  of  May,  and  attaining  its  full  in- 
florescence about  the  1st  of  June.  After  this,  unless  depastured  by 
stock  or  cut  for  hay,  the  heads  begin  to  dry  up,  and  stems  and 
leaves  begin  to  fall,  forming  a  mat  upon  the  land.  Sometimes  thi» 
mat  is  so  thick  as  to  catch  and  concentrate  the  heats  of  summer  to 


(  35  ) 

such  a  degree  as  to  scald  the  roots  and  destroy  the  clover.  Usually 
it  is  best  after  clover  has  attained  its  full  bloom,  either  to  cut  it  for 
hay,  or  pasture  with  stock  until  about  the  first  of  July.  When  the 
stock  is  removed,  or  the  clover  hay  cured  and  taken  off,  and  there 
is  rain  enough,  a  second  crop  will  spring  up  from  the  roots.  This 
second  crop  is  the  most  valuable  for  seed,  the  seed  maturing  about 
the  last  of  August,  and  sooner,  if  there  be  copious  rains.  To  make 
the  most  abundant  yield  of  clover  for  grazing,  it  should  be  allowed 
to  grow  all  it  will,  but  never  let  it  make  seed,  always  grazing  it 
down  when  in  full  bloom.  When  grazed  down,  take  off  the  stock 
until  it  blooms  again.  Several  successive  crops  may  thus  be  made 
during  the  summer.  The  crop  of  August  is  unfit  for  grazing,  the 
large  quantity  of  seed  having  the  effect  of  salivating  stock  to  such  a 
degree  as  to  cause  them  to  lose  flesh. 

It  is  a  fact,  well  attested  by  English  writers,  and  by  observant 
farmers  of  this  country,  that  when  clover  has  been  frequently  sown 
upon  the  same  land,  it  not  only  fails  to  produce  a  heavy  crop,  but 
fails  to  appear  at  all.  The  land  is  then  said  to  be  "  clover  sick." 
The  remedy  for  this  is  by  extending  the  number  of  crops  in  the 
scale  of  rotation,  so  that  clover  will  not  come  so  often  upon  the 
same  land.  By  Liebig,  clover-sick  land  is  supposed  to  be  caused 
by  the  roots  of  clover  impoverishing  the  subsoil. 

Clover  has  no  superior  as  a  grazing  plant.  When  in  full  vigor 
and  bloom,  it  will  carry  more  cattle  and  sheep  per  acre  than  blue- 
grass,  Herd's  grass,  or  orchard  grass.  After  it  has  been  grazed  to 
the  earth,  a  few  showery  days  with  warm  suns  will  cause  it  to 
spring  up  into  renewed  vitality,  ready  again  to  furnish  its  succulent 
herbage  to  domestic  animals.  Though  very  nutritious  and  highly 
relished  by  cattle,  it  often  produces  a  dangerous  swelling  called 
hoven,  from  which  many  cows  die.  When  first  turned  upon  clover, 
cattle  should  only  be  allowed  to  graze  for  an  hour  or  two,  and  then 
be  driven  off  for  the  remainder  of  the  day,  gradually  increasing  the 
time  of  grazing,  until  they  become  less  voracious  in  their  appetites, 
never  permitting  them  to  run  upon  clover  when  wet.  Clover  made 
wet  by  a  rain  at  midday  is  more  likely  to  produce  hoven  than 
when  wet  by  dew.  This  is  because  when  wet  by  rain  at  midday,  or 
after  the  stalks  and  leaves  are  heated  by  the  sun,  when  taken  into 
the  stomach  of  a  cow,  this  heat  generates  fermentation  much  sooner 
than  when  the  herbage  is  cool,  though  wet  with  the  morning  dew. 


(36) 

Cattle  are  more  easily  affected  by  clover  than  horses,  because  being 
ruminants,  they  take  in  the  clover  rapidly,  filling  the  stomach  at 
once,  without  chewing.  Digestion  is  for  the  time  checked,  and  a 
rapid  fermentation  sets  in.  The  remedy  found  most  effective  for 
hoven  is  to  stick  a  sharp  pointed  knife  about  six  inches  in  front  of 
the  hip,  to  the  left  side  of  the  backbone,  and  far  enough  from  it  to 
miss  the  spinal  protuberances,  and  in  the  thinnest  part  of  the  flank. 
A  cow  should  never  be  run  when  affected  with  hoven,  as  this  treat- 
ment only  intensifies  the  pain  without  affording  relief. 

Stock  should  never  be  turned  upon  clover  until  it  blooms.  The 
practice  of  many  of  our  farmers,  to  turn  all  the  stock  upon  a  clover 
field  early  in  April,  is  very  destructive.  The  crown  of  the  clover 
is  eaten  out,  causing  it  to  perish.  The  tread  of  heavy  cattle  has  the 
same  effect. 

As  a  soiling  crop  red  clover  is  excelled  by  no  crop  grown  with- 
in the  State.  The  practice  of  soiling  in  thickly  settled  commu- 
nities is  one  much  commended  by  agricultural  writers.  An  half- 
acre  of  clover  will  supply  one  cow  throughout  the  months  of  June, 
July  and  August,  if  cut  off  and  fed  in  a  stall,  while  twice  the 
amount  in  pasture,  according  to  some  English  experimenters,  will 
barely  subsist  a  cow  during  the  same  period,  and  this  will  depend, 
of  course,  upon  the  luxuriance  of  the  growth.  Soiling  (that  is  cut- 
ting the  grass  and  feeding  it  green)  is  a  very  desirable  practice, 
near  small  towns,  where  m'any  persons  own  small  lots,  and  desire  to 
keep  a  milch  cow.  No  other  grass,  perhaps,  will  produce  a  larger 
flow  of  milk. 

NUTRITIVE   VALUE   AND   CONSTITUENT   ELEMENTS   OF   CLOVER. 

The  nutritive  value  of  clover  was  long  known  by  feeders  before 
chemical  research  demonstrated  the  same  fact.  It  contains,  when 
cut  in  bloom,  nearly  four  per  cent  more  nitrogenous  food  than  tim- 
othy, and  four  and  a  half  per  cent  more  than  blue-grass.  Accord- 
ing to  Professors  Wolff  and  Knop,  in  its  green  state  it  contains  800 
parts  in  1,000  of  water,  about  100  parts  more  than  timothy,  and 
37  parts  in  1,000  of  albuminoids  or  flesh  formers.  When  made 
into  hay,  cut  when  in  bloom,  and  well  cured,  red  clover  contains 
134  parts  in  1,000  of  albuminoids,  but  cut  when  fully  ripe  only  94 
parts.  The  albuminoids  contain  about  16  per  cent  of  nitrogen. 
Timothy  hay  has  9.7  per  cent  of  flesh-forming  matter,  and  therefore 


(37) 

contains  less  nitrogen,  in  the  proportion  of  15  to  21,  than  clover 
hay.  Barley  has  10  per  cent  of  albuminoids,  Indian  corn  10.7,  rye 
11,  oats  12,  clover  13.4  per  cent,  so  that  it  appears  clover  hay  will 
furuish  more  muscle-producing  or  nitrogenous  food  than  either 
corn,  rye,  oats,  or  timothy,  which  gives  strength  to  the  statements 
of  many  practical  farmers,  that  a  crop  can  be  made  by  feeding 
clover  hay  alone  to  the  working  animals,  and  they  will  keep  up 
under  it. 

Professor  Way  gives  the  following  analysis  of  the  red  clover  when 
green : 

Per  cent. 

Water 81. 

Albuminoids 4.27 

Fatty  matter 69 

Heat  producing 8.45 

Woody  fibre , 3.76 

Ash 1.82 

One  hundred  pounds  dried  at  212  F.  gives  the  following: 

Percent. 

Albuminoids  or  flesh-formers 22.55 

Fatty  matter 3.67 

Heat-producers  (starch,  sugar,  gum,  etc.) 44.47 

Woody  fibre 19.75 

Ash. 9.56 

The  proportion  of  fat  in  the  various  vegetable  products  is  given 
in  the  following  table,  taken  from  Prof.  S.  W.  Johnson's  "  How 

Crops  Grow  "  : 

Fat. 

Meadow  grass 0.8  percent 

Bed  clover  (green)  0.7  percent 

Meadow  hay 3.0  per  cent 

Clover  hay « 3.2  percent 

Wheat  straw 1-5  percent 

Oat  straw 2.0  percent 

Wheat  bran 1.5  percent 

Potato,  Irish 0.3  percent 

Turnip 0.1  percent 

Wheat  kernel !-6  percent 

Oat  kernel 1-6  percent 

Indian  corn 7-°  percent 

pea  3.0  percent 

Ck)ttOT^..3r.."... 34.0  per  cent 

Flax  seed 34.0  per  cent 

446366 


(38) 

It  appears  from  this  table  that  clover  hay  has  not  quite  one-half 
the  fat  of  Indian  corn,  but  having  more  albuminoids  it  has  nearly 
three  per  cent  more  nitrogenous  food.  Both  should  be  fed  together, 
the  clover  to  give  muscle  and  the  corn  to  give  fat.  It  also  appears- 
that  the  clover  hay  is  richer  in  fat  than  meadow  hay. 

EFFECTS  OF  CLOVER   UPON   SOILS— MANURE   FOR. 

Numerous  facts  have  taught  the  farmers  of  every  country  where 
agriculture  has  nourished,  that  in  many  cases  the  value  of  the  after 
crop  depends  upon  the  preceding  crop.  In  other  words,  a  proper 
rotation  is  necessary  antecedent  to  successful  farming.  The  culti- 
vation of  some  crop  with  extensive  root  ramifications  will  prepare 
the  soil  for  the  subsequent  growth  of  a  cereal.  But  the  farmer 
should  not  deceive  himself.  Every  crop  takes  away  a  part  of  the 
available  plant-food,  and  the  field  has  not  increased  in  fertility,  but 
the  plant- food  has  been  made  more  rigidly  effective  for  the  produc- 
tion of  a  crop.  "  The  physical  and  chemical  condition  of  the  fields 
has  been  improved,  but  the  chemical  store  has  been  reduced."  "All 
plants,"  says  Liebig,  "  without  exception,  exhaust  the  soil,  each  of 
them  in  its  own  way,  of  the  conditions  for  their  reproduction." 

A  field,  then,  which  produces  more  kindly  after  rotation,  is  not 
necessarily  more  fertile,  but  is  in  better  physical  condition.  It  has 
already  been  mentioned,  that  the  mechanical  effects  of  clover  upon 
soils  is  not  the  least  among  its  valuable  properties.  The  reaction 
rendered  possible  by  the  penetration  into  the  soil  of  the  long  tap- 
roots, and  the  effect  of  the  dense  shade  upon  the  land  have  a  ten- 
dency to  increase  the  productiveness,  but  may  not  add  to  the 
fertility  of  the  soil. 

Guano  is  found  on  clayey  soils,  to  largely  increase  the  growth  of 
clover.  When  used  on  a  wheat  field  seeded  to  clover  in  early 
spring,  a  "  catch  "  of  clover  will  be  secured  on  the  thinnest  spots, 
and  grow  luxuriantly.  The  greatest  benefits  from  an  application  of 
guano  upon  wheat  are  often  obtained  in  this  way.  A  good  stand  of 
clover,  however  secured,  is  the  best  possible  preparation  of  land  for 
a  succeeding  crop  of  wheat.  And  this  arises,  not  only  from  the 
available  nitrogen  which  a  clover  crop  supplies,  but  from  the  deep 
and  thorough  subsoiling  which  is  effected  by  the  deep,  penetrating 
tap-roots  of  the  clover.  They  often  descend  to  the  depth  of  four 
feet  in  search  of  food,  while  its  broad  leaves  "  absorb  carbon  from 


(39) 

the  atmosphere,  changing  it  into  solid  matter,  causing  elements  in 
the  soil  to  assume  organic  forms,  rendering  them  more  available  as 
food  for  other  crops."  If  the  soil  be  robbed  of  its  fertility,  the 
deficient  elements  must  be  added  before  clover  will  "  take." 

The  best  method  of  pasturing  is  to  wait  until  about  the  last  of 
May,  when  the  clover  is  in  bloom,  then  turn  on  stock  and  pasture 
during  the  months  of  June  and  July,  alternating  every  two  weeks 
with  other  clover  fields,  if  possible,  and  turning  off  the  stock  the 
first  of  August,  and  allowing  the  second  crop  to  come  forward  for 
seed. 

SAVING   CLOVER   HAY. 

The  precise  period  of  mowing  clover  for  hay  is  a  question  about 
which  there  has  been  much  discussion.  All  will  agree  that  it  should 
be  mowed  at  the  time  when  the  nutritive  elements — those  elements 
which  give  strength  and  produce  flesh — are  at  their  maximum. 
Those  who  are  in  the  habit  of  feeding  stock  find  that  clover  cut 
about  the  time  of  full  bloom,  when  a  few  of  the  seeds  begin  to  dry 
up,  and  just  as  the  reproductive  functions  are  being  brought  into 
play  for  the  maturing  of  seed,  will,  pound  for  pound,  produce  more 
fat  and  muscle  than  that  cut  at  any  other  time.  The  only  art  in 
curing  hay  is  to  retain  as  many  of  the  life-giving  constituents  in  it 
as  possible,  or  to  preserve  it  as  near  as  practicable  in  the  same  con- 
dition in  which  it  is  cut,  with  the  water  only  abstracted. 

The  plan  generally  adopted  is  to  mow  the  clover  in  the  morning 
and  let  it  lie  in  the  sun  several  hours  until  a  wisp,  taken  up  and 
twisted,  will  show  no  exudation  of  moisture.  It  is  then  thrown  up 
into  small  cocks,  say  four  feet  in  diameter  and  four  feet  high.  In 
these,  unless  there  is  appearance  of  rain,  it  is  allowed  to  remain  for 
a  day  or  two,  when  it  may  be  hauled  to  the  barn  and  stored  away 
without  danger  of  damage.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  let  the 
dew  fall  upon  it  as  it  lies  scattered  by  the  mower.  The  dew  of  one 
single  night  will  blacken  the  leaves  and  destroy  the  aroma  for  which 
good  clover  hay  is  so  much  prized. 

Another  plan  practiced  is  to  mow  it  and  let  it  lie  just  long  enough 
in  the  sun  to  wilt,  and  then  wagon  it  to  an  open  house  and  lay  it 
upon  beams  or  tier- poles,  where  it  can  receive  the  free  action  of  the 
air.  After  a  few  days  it  may  be  packed  down  without  any  danger 
of  fermenting.  Cured  in  this  way,  in  the  shade,  it  retains  its  green 


(  40) 

color,  is  fragrant,  and  makes  a  most  excellent  feed.  The  only  ob- 
jection to  this  plan  is  the  great  amount  of  room  under  cover  re- 
quired for  curing,  and  the  additional  burthen  of  hauling  while  green. 
Another  plan  is  to  haul  it  up  as  soon  as  it  wilts,  using  about  half 
a  bushel  of  salt  to  the  cured  ton  of  hay.  A  layer  a  foot  or  more 
in  thickness  may  be  laid  down,  over  which  salt  is  scattered  pretty 
freely,  then  another  layer  and  salt,  continuing  to  repeat  the  opera- 
tion until  the  space  set  apart  for  hay  is  filled.  A  rapid  fermenta- 
tion will  ensue,  and  the  hay  will  be  cured  by  the  heat  of  this  fer- 
mentation, the  salt  acting  as  a  preventive  against  putrefaction.  In- 
stead of  salt,  layers  of  wheat  straw  can  be  substituted.  By  using 
straw  the  clover  may  be  put  up  in  the  field.  The  quantity  of  straw 
to  be  used  in  the  rick  or  stack  depends  upon  the  moisture  in  the 
clover— the  greener  the  clover  the  thicker  should  be  the  straw. 
The  straw  will  act  as  an  absorbent,  and  during  the  process  will  itself 
be  greatly  increased  in  value  as  food  for  stock,  having  imparted  to 
it  the  flavor  and  aroma  of  the  clover  plant.  All  the  wheat  straw 
on  a  farm  could  be  utilized  in  this  way,  and  the  amount  of  manure 
in  the  farmer's  barn  largely  increased. 

Still  another  method  of  curing  clover  hay  is  the  one  practiced  in 
Ireland.  The  Irish  Farmer's  Journal,  in  giving  an  account  of  this 
process  of  curing  clover  hay,  says: 

"  The  clover  intended  for  hay  is  mown  and  left  to  lie  in  the  swath 
until  4  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  the  following  day  to  dry.  Of 
course  these  swaths  are  twelve  or  eighteen  inches  thick.  They  are 
then  raked  together  in  small  shocks,  which  are  afterwards  made 
into  larger  ones,  such  as  would  require  six  or  eight  horses  to  draw. 
Two  or  more  men  are  kept  upon  the  large  ones  tramping  them 
down,  so  as  to  make  them  more  compact  and  induce  a  more  speedy 
fermentation.  If  the  weather  is  warm,  fermentation  will  begin  in 
a  few  hours,  as  will  be  known  by  the  honey- like  smell.  When  a 
proper  fermentation  has  begun,  the  cocks,  on  being  opened,  will 
appear  brownish  and  may  be  spread.  After  drying,  it  may  be 
carried  to  the  hay  loft  without  any  danger  of  a  second  fermenta- 
tion." 

It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  clover  hay  will  not  shed 
rain.  When  stacked  out  in  the  field,  it  should  either  be  thatched 
or  have  a  thick  top-covering  of  wheat  straw  c-r  other  hay.  The 


(  41  ) 

The  tedder  is  thought  by  many  to  be  indispensable  in  saving  good 
clover  hay.  Unquestionably  it  is  of  great  service,  and  the  hay 
made  by  the  use  of  the  tedder  in  dry,  hot  weather  is  superior  to 
that  made  without;  but  good  hay  can  be  and  is  made  by  many 
farmers  who  never  saw  a  tedder.  Clover  hay  is  more  difficult  to 
cure  than  hay  from  any  of  the  real  grasses,  and  this  arises  from  the 
fact  that  it  contains  more  water  than  other  grasses  in  the  proportion 
of  eight  to  seven.  For  this  reason,  also,  it  is  more  difficult  to 
keep,  being  more  liable  to  heat  in  the  mow.  It  will  not  bear  hand- 
ling or  transportation,  and  while  it  will  always  be  a  favorite  hay 
for  home  consumption,  it  will  never  be  valuable  for  market  pur- 
poses. For  horses  good  grass  hay  is  probably  better  than  clover, 
because  it  it  more  digestible,  and  is  not  so  liable  to  produce  colic. 
On  the  other  hand,  clover  is  a  superior  hay  for  cattle,  producing  in 
milk  cows  a  fine  flow  of  milk. 

The  following  table,  compiled   from  analyses   made  by  Wolff, 
Knop  and  Way,  will  exhibit  the  comparative  value  of  clover  and 

grass  hays: 


J3 

£ 

CJ 

*o 

"cS 

SUBSTANCE. 

a 

.2 

'5 

J. 

« 

| 

3 

«t 

9 

6 

1 

1 

O 

£ 

Red  clover  in  bloom 

167 

111 

62 

134 

299 

358 

32 

167 

111 

56 

94 

203 

480 

20 

167 

748 

85 

149 

343 

256 

35 

Alsike  clover,  in  bloom  

16.7 

75.0 

8.3 

15.3 

392 

30.5 

3.3 

Alsike  clover,  ripe  

16.7 

78.3 

5.0 

10.2 

23.1 

45.0 

2.5 

Orchard  grass  

14.3 

81.1 

4.6 

11.6 

407 

28.9 

2.7 

Timothv     

143 

81.2 

4.5 

9.7 

48.8 

327 

3.0 

Kentnckv  blue  grass  

14.3 

80.6 

5.1 

8.9 

39.1 

32.6 

3.1 

SAVING   CLOVER   SEED. 

It  has  often  been  a  matter  of  surprise  that  Tennessee  farmers 
have  not  more  generally  saved  their  clover  seed.  The  amount  of 
money  yearly  paid  out,  for  an  article  which  is  now  considered  a 
prime  necessity  to  good  farming,  is  erroneous.  Were  the  lands  of 
Tennessee  incapable  of  producing  clover  seed,  there  would  be  reason 
for  this  expenditure.  In  point  of  fact,  however,  no  section  of  the 
Union  will  produce,  acre  for  acre,  a  larger  quantity  of  clover  seed. 


(.42  ) 

Three  bushels  per  acre  have  often  been  gathered,  although  the- 
usual  average  is  about  one  and  a  half  bushels. 

As  the  first  crop  of  clover,  coming  to  maturity  in  June,  will  not 
perfect  its  seed,  it  is  necessary  to  take  off  the  first  crop,  either  by 
feeding  or  by  mowing  for  hay,  and  rely  for  the  seed  upon  the  after 
crop.  The  quantity  of  seed  of  this  crop  will  depend  much  upon 
the  weather.  Should  there  be  much  rain  or  heavy  winds,  the  yield 
of  seed  will  be  small,  but  when  the  weather  has  been  fine  and  calm, 
and  the  seed  free  from  dock  or  other  noxious  seeds,  the  crop  will 
be  found  as  remunerative  as  any  other  grown  by  the  farmer.  A 
bushel  of  clover  seed  will  weigh  usually  about  sixty-four  pounds, 
though  sixty  pounds  is  the  standard  bushel  in  market. 

The  seed  crop  of  clover  should  be  allowed  to  stand  until  the 
husks  have  become  quite  brown  and  the  seeds  have  passed  the 
milky  state.  It  should  then  be  mowed  and  permitted  to  lie  upon 
the  ground  until  it  is  well  cured.  After  it  is  cured  rake  it  up  into 
swaths.  Rain  will  rather  benefit  than  injure  it,  making  it  easier  to 
separate  the  heads  from  the  haulm,  which  is  done  by  passing  through 
an  ordinary  wheat  separator.  A  clover  huller  attachment  is  ad- 
justed to  the  separator  below  the  vibrator,  which  hulls  the  seeds, 
and  they  are  separated  from  the  chaff  by  the  fan,  care  being  taken 
to  shut  off  as  much  air  as  possible  by  closing  the  sliding  doors. 

The  crop  of  seed  can  be  largely  increased  by  mowing  or  feeding 
off  the  first  crop  of  clover  about  the  first  of  June,  and  then  top- 
dressing  with  stable  manure.  The  earlier  the  first  crop  is  cut  the 
larger  will  be  the  crop  of  seed.  By  treating  the  clover  fields  in 
this  way,  as  much  as  three  bushels  of  seed  have  been  obtained  from 
an  acre.  Uplands  will  yield  more  seed  than  bottom  lands,  but  they 
should  be  enriched  by  a  liberal  application  of  manure.  About  the 
first  of  September  is  the  time  to  mow  for  seed,  and  the  straw  will 
thresh  all  the  better  for  being  exposed  to  the  weather  for  three 
weeks.  The  threshing  is  usually  done  in  the  field,  though  the 
haulm  may  be  hauled  up  after  being  thoroughly  dry,  and  stacked 
with  a  good  straw  covering,  or  else  stored  away  under  shelter  on  a 
good  tight  floor  until  it  suits  the  convenience  of  the  farmer  to 
thresh.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  run  over  or  tramp  upon  the 
clover  after  it  is  dried,  as  many  seeds  are  thus  shelled  out  and  lost. 
The  better  plan  is  to  haul  to  the  thresher  just  as  soon  as  the  straw 


(  43  ) 

is  in  a  proper  condition  to  thresh.     This  will  save  the  trouble  and 
expense  of  stacking. 

Some  farmers  prefer  to  sow  in  the  chaff,  believing  that  a  better 
stand  of  clover  is  thus  secured.  Usually  about  thirty  bushels  in 
the  chaff  are  considered  equivalent  to  one  of  cleaned  seed.  Of 
course  this  will  depend  greatly  upon  the  yield  of  seed,  and  experi- 
ments ought  to  be  made  to  determine  the  relative  amount  to  sow 
when  in  chaff. 

CLOVER   AS   A   PREPARATORY   CROP   FOR   WHEAT. 

No  question  at  the  present  day  pertaining  to  agriculture  is  more 
deeply  interesting  to  the  farmers  of  Tennessee  than  how  to  increase 
the  yield  of  the  wheat  crop  per  acre,  for  upon  this  depends  the 
profits  of  this  standard  crop,  one  probably  more  generally  grown  in 
the  State  than  any  other.  It  has  also  been  noted  that  a  soil  well 
suited  to  clover  is  generally  well  adapted  to  wheat,  but  not  until  the 
painstaking  investigations  of  Dr.  Voelcker,  of  England,  was  the 
fact  established  that  the  clover  plant,  by  increasing  the  amount  of 
available  nitrogen  in  the  surface  soil,  is  the  very  best  forerunner 
for  wheat,  unlocking,  as  it  were,  the  elements  in  the  soil  necessary 
to  a  full  and  perfect  development  of  the  wheat  crop. 

Prof.  Way  has  established  the  fact  that  the  carbonate  of  ammo- 
nia of  rain-water  and  of  manures  are  so  absorbed  and  so  firmly 
fixed  by  the  soil  that  no  free  ammonia  can  be  present  in  it. 
Neither  pure  nor  carbonic  acid  water  can  extract  this  fixed  ammo- 
nia from  the  soil.  It  must  be  extracted  by  the  roots  of  plants.  A 
plant,  therefore,  with  extensive  root  ramifications,  such  as  clover, 
will  extract  a  much  larger  quantity  than  those  plants  with  feebler 
roots.  The  clover  roots  bring  this  ammonia  or  nitrogen  to  the  sur- 
face, and  on  their  decay  these  nitrogenous  matters  are  converted 
into  nitrates  in  which  the  wheat  plant  finds  a  most  congenial  food. 
In  addition  to  this,  the  leaves  formed  by  clover  contain  a  large 
amount  of  nitrogenous  matter,  and  these  are  dropped  upon  the  sur- 
face, increasing  the  amount  of  nitrogen  available  for  wheat  or  other 
crops. 


(  44) 
AL.SIKE  CLOVER— (Trifolium  hybrid-urn.) 

This  species  of  clover  was  introduced  into  England  from  Sweden, 
hence  it  is  sometimes  called  Swedish  clover.  It  gets  the  name 
Alsikefrom  the  parish  of  Alsike,  in  the  province  of  Upland.  It  is 
a  perennial  found  wild  throughout  many  parts  of  Sweden,  Norway 
and  Finland. 

Alsike  clover,  as  compared  with  common  red  clover,  has  a 
slenderer  stalk,  narrower  leaf,  and  paler  colored  flowers  and  foliage. 
The  flower  stalks  are  longer,  and  the  blossoms  more  fragrant  and 
sweeter  to  the  taste.  When  first  open,  the  blooms  are  but  faintly 
tinged  with  pink,  subsequently  they  deepen  into  a  pale  red,  and 
stand  up.  When  the  period  of  flowering  passes  the  heads  droop 
and  turn  brown.  The  seed  pods  contain  three  or  four  seeds,  which 
are  kidney-shaped,  and  from  dark  green  to  violet  color,  and  consid- 
erably smaller  than  the  seeds  of  red  clover. 

This  clover  does  not  make  much  growth  the  first  year,  and  at- 
tains full  growth  only  in  its  third  year.  It  yields  less  than  the 
red  clover,  and  has  but  little  or  no  aftermath.  It  is  hardier  and 
sweeter  than  red  clover,  and  being  a  perennial,  is  more  lasting,  and 
it  makes  a  finer  hay. 

Wherever  it  has  been  tried,  experience  has  taught  that  it  is 
best  to  seed  it  down  with  red  clover,  or  some  grass,  preferably 
orchard  grass,  for  the  reasons  that  it  does  not  occupy  the  ground  the 
first  year,  and  is  liable  to  fall  and  lodge  badly  if  sown  alone.  I 
have  noticed  that  it  is  much  frequented  by  bees.  It  does  not  stand 
the  long  dry  summers  of  our  latitude  well  but  seems  to  like  cool, 
moist  regions. 

As  compared  with  red  clover,  the  hay  is  richer  by  two  per  cent 

in  flesh   formers — both  cut  in  bloom.     The  analyses  of  both,  as 

given  by  Professors  Wolff  and  Knop,  show  : 

Bed  clover : 

Flesh  formers 134 

Heat  producing  substances 29.9 

Crude  fibre 353 

Fat ..../../.V.......7.....""1...Z  3.2 

Ash c Q  2 

Alsike : 

Flesh  formers 15  3 

Heat  producing  substances ....29.2 

Crude  fibre 30'5 

f' "'.::::::::::::::  ** 

Ash Q  Q 


(45) 

.     The  great  difference  in  the  amount  of  crude  fibre  is  noticeable,, 
and  shows  decidedly  in  favor  of  Alsike  clover. 

SAPLING  BED  CLOVER— ( Trifolium  erectum.) 

This  is  precisely  the  same  plant  as  the  common  red  clover,  and  is 
used  in  the  same  manner  and  for  the  same  purposes.  The  only  dif- 
ference in  it  is,  that  the  stems  being  stouter,  it  is  not  liable  to  lodge, 
but  stand  erect,  and  so  be  in  a  better  condition  to  mow,  and  admits 
the  sun  to  its  roots  better.  As  to  which  may  be  preferable  is  a 
mere  matter  of  taste  or  prejudice.  Either  is  good,  the  sapling 
clover  being  about  two  weeks  later. 

CRIMSON  CLOVER— (Trifolium  incarnatum.} 

This  is  an  annual,  presenting  a  beautiful  crimson  flower  when  in 
bloom.  It  is  principally  valuable  as  a  green  food,  though  the  hay 
is  thonght  to  be  equal  or  superior  to  that  made  of  red  clover,  but 
being  an  annual  it  interferes  more  with  the  operations  of  the  farm, 
it  being  necessary  to  sow  it  as  a  separate  crop. 

An  analysis  of  the  hay  cut  in  bloom,  as  made  by  Wolff  and 
Knop,  shows : 

Flesh  formers , 12.2 

Heating  properties 30.1 

Crude  fibre 338 

Fat 3.0 

Ash 7.2 

It  is  said  to  be  earlier  th'an  lucerne  or  the  common  red  clover. 
It  may  be  sown  upon  wheat  or  grain  stubble  in  the  fall,  the  land 
being  simply  harrowed  and  the  seed  sown. 

Few  things,  it  is  said,  in  the  vegetable  world,  present  a  more 
beautiful  sight  than  a  field  of  crimson  clover  in  full  bloom.  It  is 
not  grown  to  any  extent  in  this  State,  a  few  bunches  appearing 
sometimes  in  fields  with  other  clover.  Its  chief  value  is  in  its  quick 
return.  Sown  in  autumn  it  may  be  mown  early  the  succeeding 
spring/ and  so  meet  any  scarcity  of  provender. 

ALFALFA :  LUCERNE—  (Medicago  Sativa.) 

This  is,  beyond  doubt,  the  oldest  cultivated  grass  known,  having 
been  introduced  into  Greece  from  Media  500  B.  C.,  and  the 
Romans,  finding  its  qualities  good,  cultivated  it  extensively,  and  by 
them  it  was  carried  into  France  when  Ca.sar  reduced  Gaul.  It  is 


(46) 

emphatically  a  child  of  the  sun,  and  revels  in  a  heat  that  would 
destroy  any  other  species  of  clover.  But  cold  and  moisture  are 
hurtful  to  it.  On  the  rich,  sandy  lands  of  the  South  it  is  invalu- 
able, and  will  grow  luxuriantly,  making  enormous  yields  of  hay. 
Its  nutritive  constituents  are  almost  identical  with  red  clover,  but 
it  has  one  property  not  possessed  by  the  latter,  and  that  is,  it  is 
perennial.  It  does  not  stool  as  freely  as  red  clover,  and  therefore 
must  be  sown  rather  thicker.  It  will  continue  to  furnish  green 
pasturage  later  than  red  clover. 

It  does  not  grow  well  on  any  soil  that  has  a  hard  pan,  nor  on 
thin  soils.  To  secure  a  stand,  the  ground  must  be  in  a  thorough 
state  of  tilth,  well  pulverized  and  mellow.  A  want  of  attention  to 
this  requisite  has  caused  many  to  be  disappointed  in  the  result. 
But  in  well  prepared,  rich,  gravelly  or  sandy  loam,  it  succeeds  re- 
markably, sending  down  its  long  tap-roots  many  feet  into  the  sub- 
soil, pumping  up  moisture  from  below,  and  thus  will  thrive  when 
all  other  plants  are  drooping.  In  this  respect  it  is  far  superior  to 
•clover.  For  the  latter,  a  suitable  surface  soil  is  of  equal  importance 
with  the  subsoil,  but  for  Lucerne  a  suitable  subsoil  is  absolutely 
necessary,  as  the  roots  are  not  fibrous,  only  rootlets  shooting  off 
from  the  main  tap-root.  This  tap  root  grows  to  be  as  large  as  a 
carrot.  This  enormous  quantity  of  roots  permeating  the  ground  t@ 
the  depth  of  several  feet,  necessarily  prepares  the  land  for  increased 
production,  the  leguminous  plants  deriving  the  larger  part  of  their 
sustenance  from  the  atmosphere,  and  storing  it  in  the  roots  ;  so 
that,  as  a  fertilizer,  it  stands  deservedly  high.  The  soil  is  not  only 
fertilized  to  the  amount  of  several  tons  per  acre,  but  it  is  mellowed 
from  the  mechanical  displacement  of  the  soil  and  the  admixture  of 
decayed  vegetable  matter.  As  a  prepartion  for  wheat  it  is  equal  to 
clover,  and  for  corn  better.  Besides,  a  large  amount  of  the  leaves 
is  necessarily  strewn  on  the  ground,  and  they  shade  it  effectually. 

The  seed  of  Lucerne  is  yellow  and  heavy,  when  good.  If  brown, 
it  has  received  too  much  heat  in  the  mow,  and  if  light  colored,  it 
indicates  that  it  was  saved  too  green.  And  the  same  precautions 
are  necessary  to  be  observed  in  regard  to  red  clover.  The  time  of 
sowing  is  the  same  with  the  other  species  of  clover,  that  is,  spring 
time.  It  should  be  sown  in  drills,  and  cultivated  the  first  year,  so 
as  to  keep  down  the  weeds.  It  is  easily  smothered. 


(47  ) 

It  derives  its  name,  Alfalfa,  from  the  Chilians.  It  grows  spon- 
taneously all  over  Chili,  among  the  Andes,  as  well  as  on  the 
pampas  of  that  country,  and  of  Buenos  Ayres.  The  French  and 
Spanish  settlements  of  the  Southern  States  adhere  to  it,  and  culti- 
vate it  in  preference  to  all  other  iorage  plants.  It  would  be  a  good 
addition  to  the  farms  of  West  Tennessee,  especially  in  the  sandy 
bottoms.  It  would  also  thrive  upon  the  alluvial  bottoms  of  any 
part  of  the  State  where  the  sun  has  fair  play  on  the  ground. 

When  properly  managed,  the  number  of  cattle  which  can  be  kept 
in  good  condition  on  an  area  of  Lucerne,  during  the  whole  season, 
exceeds  belief.  It  is  no  sooner  mown  than  it  pushes  out  fresh 
ehoots,  and  wonderful  as  the  growth  of  clover  sometimes  is,  in  a 
field  that  has  been  lately  mown,  that  of  Lucerne  is  far  more  rapid. 
Lucerne  will  last  for  many  years,  shooting  its  roots — tough  and 
fibrous  almost  at  those  of  liquorice — downwards  for  nourishment, 
till  they  are  altogether  out  of  reach  of  drought.  In  the  dryest  and 
most  sultry  weather,  when  every  blade  of  grass  droops  for  want  of 
moisture,  Lucerne  holds  out  its  stem  fresh  and  green  as  in  the 
genial  spring. 

Although  so  luxuriant  in  France,  it  will  not  flourish  in  England 
for  the  want  of  sun.  It  has  generally  bailed  in  the  Northern  States 
for  the  same  reason,  superadded  to  the  cold,  while  in  the  South  it 
is  a  fine,  thrifty  plant.  It  has  been  fully  tested  in  Georgia  and 
Alabama,  and  has  given  universal  satisfaction.  Horses  there,  it  is 
said,  require  no  other  food  when  not  constantly  engaged  in  work. 
Five  tons  of  good  hay  have  been  made  to  the  acre.  It  is  estimated 
that  five  horses  may  be  supported  during  the  entire  year  from  one 
acre  of  it.  It  is  ready  for  the  mower  a  month  before  red  clover, 
and  springs  up  long  before  the  usual  pasture  grasses.  In  saving 
it  for  hay,  care  must  be  exercised,  as  in  red  clover,  not  to  expose 
the  plant  too  long  to  the  sun,  as  it  will  shrivel  and  dry  up  the 
leaves,  and  they  will  be  lost.  The  time  for  cutting  is  when  it  is  in 
full  bloom,  as  in  red  clover. 

Occasionally  it  is  attacked  by  an  insect,  when  it  begins  to  turn 
yellow,  then  it  should  at  once  be  cut,  as  it  will  quickly  dry  up 
otherwise.  Owing  to  the  scarcity  of  seed,  and  the  small  amount 
cultivated,  it  is  quite  expensive,  but  the  farmer  can  test  it  on  a 
small  quantity  of  land,  and  at  the  same  time  secure  seed  for  future 
sowing.  The  first  year  it  is  apt  to  be  troubled  by  the  presence  of 


(48) 

weeds,  but  these  can  be  easily  exterminated  if  the  precaution  is 
observed  to  run  the  mower  over  it  before  weeds  go  to  seed.  After- 
wards no  fears  need  be  entertained  on  that  subject. 

This  plant  is  well  adapted  to  the  use  of  persons  living  in  small 
towns  or  villages,  who  have  a  small  lot  they  wish  to  devote  to  hay 
for  a  single  horse  or  cow.  No  other  kind  of  clover  or  grass  will 
equal  it  in  quantity,  while  the  quality  is  as  good  as  the  best. 

On  the  whole,  the  farmers  cannot  do  better  than  adopt  the  culti- 
vation of  this  grass.  It  has  proved,  with  all  who  have  tested  it, 
worthy  of  all  the  extravagant  encomiums  bestowed  upon  it. 

An  alalysis  shows  the  hay  to  contain  : 

Flesh  formers 14.4 

Heating  properties   22.£ 

Crude  fibre 40.0 

Fat 2.5 

Ash 6.4 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  flesh-forming  constituents  it  surpasses  red 
clover  by  one  per  cent. 

SAINFOIN  OB  ESPARSETTE.— (Onobrychis  sativa.) 

Experiments  have  been  made  with  this  grass,  and  though  so 
valuable  in  France  as  to  be  called  sacred,  it  has  not  proved  a  suc- 
cess here.  It  requires  two  or  three  years  to  arrive  at  maturity,  and 
during  that  time  has  to  be  watched  closely,  or  it  will  be.. choked  up 
with  weeds  or  grasses.  It  does  not  yield  as  much  hay  as  either  red 
clover  or  lucerne,  but  is  of  a  very  superior  kind,  and  is  much 
vaunted  as  a  good  butter- making  hay.  It  does  not  give  cows  the 
hoven,  however  much  they  may  eat  of  it.  Its  seeds  are  also  said  to 
be  superior  to  oats,  and  more  nutritious,  and  are  very  fine  for  fowls, 
inciting  them  to  lay.  It  does  best  on  limestone  soils,  though  suc- 
ceeding well  on  gravelly  or  sandy  land,  and  will  stand  a  large 
amount  of  heat,  though  not  much  cold.  It  would  probably  suit 
the  country  further  south  better  than  Tennessee,  though  I  have 
seen  it  growing  in  Stewart  county,  having  been  brought  there  by  a 
Swiss  family.  It  would  probably  grow  on  all  our  calcareous  soils. 


PASTURE  GRASSES. 


While  there  are  over  two  hundred  varieties  of  grasses  cultivated 
in  England  for  the  use  of  domestic  animals,  in  the  occupied  terri- 
tory embraced  within  the  United  States  there  are  not  more  than 
twenty-five;  although  there  is  a  much  greater  diversity  of  soils, 
surface  configuration,  climate  and  latitude.  The  grasses  constitut- 
ing our  meadows  are  nearly  all  derived  from  the  eastern  continent, 
where  the  abundance  of  the  rich  pasture  lands  teem  with  a  great 
Variety  of  nutritious  herbage.  All  the  cereals — oats,  rye,  wheat 
and  barley,  are  indigenous  to  the  old  world.  Indian  corn  is  the 
greatest  and  almost  the  only  valuable  cereal  contributed  by  the  new 
world  to  the  old.  The  great  prairies  east  and  west  of  the  Mississ- 
ippi abound  in  a  charming  and  luxuriant  vegetation,  but  the  supply 
of  food  which  they  afford  for  the  herds  grazing  upon  them,  in  com- 
parison to  the  overwhelming  quantity  of  worthless  herbage,  is  very 
scanty.  Exactly  the  reverse  is  the  condition  of  the  pastures  of  the 
eastern  hemisphere,  where  almost  every  plant  that  springs  from  the 
surface  of  the  earth  is  rich  in  nutritive  elements.  The  situation  of 
Tennessee  being  midway  between  the  East  and  West,  partakes  of 
both  sections.  We  have  in  the  State  many  thousands  of  acres  of 
wild  lands,  situated  not  only  on  the  mountain  plateau,  but  on  the 
highlands  of  the  river  lands,  called  with  us  "Barrens."  These 
Barrens  are  covered  with  a  dense  growth  of  timber,  and  in  some 
sections,  where  they  have  not  been  burned  off,  with  undergrowth 
of  various  kinds.  Where  this  undergrowth  has  been  burned  off 
by  firing  the  leaves  in  the  fall  and  winter,  the  pastures  are  as  fine 
as  are  seen  anywhere,  not  excepting  the  prairies.  It  is  true  there 
are  many  species  of  grasses  that  are  worthless,  or  that  are  at  least 
of  doubtful  value,  yet  enough  of  them  exist  there  to  make  them 
invaluable  to  the  stockgrower.  In  the  fall  of  the  year  these  grasses 
4 


(50) 

become  tall,  will  turn  over  and  form  a  roof  or  covering  to  young 
grass  that  grows  under  them  all  the  winter,  and  stock  will  paw  at 
it  until  the  covering  removed,  they  get  to  the  young  succulent 
shoots  thus  kept  alive  throughout  our  short  winters.  A  detailed 
description  of  these  wild  grasses,  while  it  might  interest  the  student, 
would  be  out  of  place  in  a  work  of  this  kind,  intended  to  be  en- 
tirely practical ;  for,  however  much  they  may  be  used  in  their 
indigenous  situation,  there  is  no  probability  of  the  farmer  ever 
getting  them  transferred  to  his  fields.  The  grasses  we  here  treat 
of  as  pasture  grasses,  are  alone  those  that  will  bear  sowing  in  new 
situations,  and  to  this  class  we  will  strictly  adhere.  For  a  more 
detailed  description  of  the  others,  I  refer  the  reader  to  the  work 
sent  out  from  this  Bureau  on  the  "  Grasses  of  Tennessee." 
With  this  explanation  we  will  describe  the  subjoined. 

NIMBLE  WIIjIi.—(Muhlenbergia  diffusa.) 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  do  more  than  mention  this  grass,  which 
forms,  in  many  sections,  the  bulk  of  the  pastures  of  the  woods.  It 
does  not  grow  in  fields,  but  in  woods,  where,  in  the  fall,  after  rains 
have  set  in,  it  carpets  the  earth  with  living  green.  Various  opin- 
ions are  entertained  as  to  its  nutritive  qualities.  Some  farmers 
contend  that  their  stock  are  fond  of  it,  and,  on  a  sufficient  range, 
cattle,  horses  and  sheep  will  go  into  the  winter  sleek  and  fat  from 
this  vigorous  grass.  Others  regard  it  as  wellnigh  worthless. 

It  freely  propagates  itself  in  all  woods  where  the  covering  of 
leaves  is  not  so  great  as  to  exclude  the  rays  of  the  sun  from  the  soil. 
Like  other  grasses,  it  does  best  on  good  lands,  and  the  rich,  black, 
loamy  woods  in  many  parts  of  the  State  are  set  with  it. 

It  is  said  to  be  an  excellent  butter-making  grass,  and  gives  a 
particularly  fine  flavor  to  this  article  of  food.  It  has  never,  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  writer,  been  sown,  though,  as  it  produces  seed  in 
a  limited  quantity,  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not  be,  if  it  is 
really  a  valuable  grass. 

BERMUDA  GRASS.—  SCUTCH  GRASS.— (Cynodon  dactylon.) 

Bermuda  grass  is  a  native  of  the  West  Indias,  and  is  the  princi- 
pal grass  of  that  torrid  country.  It  has  only  lately  been  brought 
into  notice  as  a  valuable  pasture  grass  for  this  State.  In  Louisiana, 
Texas  and  the  South  generally,  it  is,  and  has  beeo  the  chief  reli- 
ance for  pasture  for  a  long  time,  and  the  immense  herds  of  cattle 


(51  ) 

•t>n  the  southern  prairies  subsist  principally  on  this  food.  It  revels 
-on  sandy  soils,  and  has  been  grown  extensively  on  the  sandy  hills 
-of  Virginia  and  North  and  South  Carolina.  From  the  extreme 
vitality  of  its  long,  rhizome  roots,  it  is  very  difficult  to  eradicate 
when  once  it  gets  a  good  foothold.  Occasionally  the  traveler  meets 
with  patches  of  Bermuda  grass  in  the  cotton  fields  of  the  South, 
^,nd  it  is  carefully  avoided  by  the  planter,  any  disturbance  giving  a 
new  start  to  its  vigorous  roots.  Some  ditch  around  it,  and  others 
enclose  it  and  let  shrubbery  do  the  work  of  destruction.  It  is  used 
extensively  on  the  southern  rivers  to  hold  the  levees  and  the  em- 
bankments of  the  roads. .  It  is  the  only  yard  grass  in  that  section. 
It  forms  a  sward  so  tough  it  is  almost  impossible  for  a  plow  to  pass 
through  it.  There  is  a  saying  in  the  South,  "  that  it  would  take  a 
team  of  six  bull  elephants  to  draw  a  thumb-lancet  through  it." 

It  will  throw  its  runners  over  a  rock  six  feet  across,  and  soon 
hide  it  from  view  j  or,  it  will  run  down  the  sides  of  the  deepest 
gully  and  stop  its  washing. 

The  parks  of  the  South,  set  with  it,  present  a  very  beautiful  ap- 
pearance if  kept  mown,  and  its  pale  green  color  acts  as  a  great 
relief  to  the  landscape  when  burning  with  the  summer  suns  of  the 
South.  Hogs  thrive  upon  its  succulent  roots,  and  horses  and  cattle 
upon  its  foliage.  It  has  seed,  but  is  always  propagated  by  drop- 
ping cuttings  in  a  furrow  two  or  three  feet  apart,  from  th,e  fact  that 
the  seed  rarely  mature,  so  that  practically  it  may  be  said  to  have 
none.  It,  however,  does  not  endure  a  shade,  and  the  weeds  must 
be  mown  from  it  the  first  year. 

In  some  of  the  worn  and  gullied  fields  of  Tennessee,  on  her 
mountain  sides  and  on  the  sandy  hills. of  many  parts  of  the  State, 
the  cultivation  of  this  grass  would  be  a  grand  improvement,  making 
the  waste  places  to  bloom,  where  now  only  sterility  reigns.  During 
the  winter  it,  unlike  blue-grass,  disappears  from  view,  but  with  the 
warming  influences  of  the  sun  it  springs  up  and  affords  a  constant 
grazing  through  the  spring,  summer  and  autumn  months.  The 
farmers  of  the  South,  before  the  war,  looked  upon  it  as  a  curse 
rather  than  a  blessing,  and  used  every  endeavor  to  destroy  it.  But 
a  change  of  opinion  has  taken  place  in  this  respect,  and  it  is  en- 
couraged in  its  growth. 

It  would  be  a  good  grass  to  mix  with' blue-grass,  as,  when  it  dis- 
appears in  the  winter,  the  blue-grass  and  white  clover  will  spring 


(52) 

up  to  keep  the  ground  in  a  constant  state  of  verdure.  It  grows 
luxuriantly  on  the  top  of  Lookout  Mountain,  having  been  set  there 
many  years  ago.  This  mountain  is,  2,200  feet  high,  and  has,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  excessively  cold  winters ;  so,  if  it  thrives  there,  no 
fear  need  be  entertained  as  to  its  capacity  to  endure  our  climate. 
Cattle  are  very  fond  of  it,  and  will  leave  clover  to  feed  upon  Ber- 
muda. It  also  has  the  capacity  to  withstand  any  amount  of  heat 
and  drought,  and  months  that  are  so  dry  as  to  chepk  the  growth  of 
blue-grass,  will  only  make  the  Bermuda  greener  and  more  thrifty. 
The  experiment  of  mixing  the  two  grasses,  spoken  of  above  has 
been  tried  with  eminent  success. 

It  is  also  used  in  the  South  as  meadow  grass,^but  Tennessee  has 
so  many  other  grasses  of  more  value,  that  it  would  not  be  profitable 
to  employ  this,  other  than  as  a  pasture  grass. 

Where  it  is  indigenous,  it  has  a  great  reputation  as  a  fertilizer, 
and  many  fields  so  worn  out  as  to  be  worthless,  have  been  re- 
claimed by  it.  The  labor  of  plowing  it  up  is  considerable,  but  the 
many  improved  plows  of  the  present  day  would  be  easily  dragged 
through  it.  There  is  a  sacred  grass  in  India  called  the  Daub,  and 
it  is  venerated  by  the  inhabitants  on  account  of  its  wonderful  use- 
fulness. This  is  said  to  be  precisely  the  same  as  the  Bermuda,  ex- 
cept the  changes  made  by  the  difference  of  climate  and  soil. 

"  Bermuda  grass  well  set,  which  affords  the  finest  and  most  nutri- 
tious pasturage  I  have  ever  seen,  will  keep  almost  any  number  of 
sheep  to  the  acre — three  or  four  times  as  many  as  blue-grass." 

HAIRY  MUSKIT  —  MEZQUITB— MBSQUIT— (Bouleloua  curtipend- 
ula.) 

Muskit  fgrass  has  come  into  very  general  use  in  some  parts  of 
Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and,  to  some  extent,  in  Tennessee,  and 
where  used,  has  given  much  satisfaction.  It  is  the  grass  of  the 
northern  and  western  prairies,  and  is  very  nutritious.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  grasses  better  suited  to  this  climate,  the  muskit  might  be- 
come a  very  popular  grass,  but  such  is  not  the  case.  Great  quanti- 
ties of  it  are  annually  cut  and  sold  as  prairie  hay.  It  would  be 
well  for  some  enterprising  farmer  to  experiment  with  it. 

ANNUAL  SPEAR  GRASS-GOOSE  GRASS— (Poa  annua.} 

This  is  one  of  the  species  of  the  valuable  genus  poa  to  which 
blue-grass  belongs,  and  is  a  very  common  grass  on  all  our  swards, 


(  53) 

and  known  as  goose  grass.  It  is  so  very  like  blue- grass  that,  to  a 
casual  observer,  it  would  be  taken  for  it.  But  the  florets  are  not 
webbed,  and  in  blue-grass  the  roots  are  creeping,  while  this  is 
tufted.  It  is  a  valuable  grazing  grass  and  sows  itself.  It  is  a  com- 
mon pasture  grass  of  the  Northern  States,  and  is  highly  prized.  It 
flowers  through  the  whole  summer,  unless  dried  up  by  a  drought, 
to  which  it  easily  yields.  It  forms  the  principle  grazing  of  the 
Unaka  Mountains  in  Tennessee. 

According  to  Prof.  Way,  this  grass  is  less  nutritious  than  blue- 
grass  when  green,  and  more  nutritious  when  dry. 

"WOOD  MEADOW  GRASS— (Poa  nemoralis.} 

This  grass  grows  in  moist,  shady  woods,  is  rank  and  luxuriant, 
and  is,  like  the  other  poas,  greatly  relished  by  stock.  It  will  thrive 
well  in  thickets  and  barrens,  and  is  an  early  grass.  It  has  been 
treated  of  under  the  head  of  meadow  grasses. 

BLUE-GRASS — (Poa  pratensis.) 

This  is  the  king  of  pasture  grasses  in  the 
Central  Basin  of  Tennessee,  and  on  soils 
suited  to  its  growth  it  is  useless  to  attempt 
the  cultivation  of  any  othef  kinds,  except  as 
auxiliary  to  this.  It  is  valuable  both  for 
summer  and  winter  pasturage,  and  no  far- 
mer occupying  soils  suited  to  its  growth  is 
justifiable  in  being  without  it.  It  is  easily 
started,  and  the  seeds  are  readily  procured, 
and  once  started,  it  is  perennial.  No 
amount  of  pasturing  is  sufficient  to  destroy 
it  utterly,  and,  though  eaten  until  no  ap- 
pearance of  it  is  seen  on  the  ground,  with 
rest  for  a  few  days,  the  earth  is  again  car- 
peted with  its  soft  green  foliage  as  luxuri- 
antly as  ever.  "  Whoever  has  blue-grass  has 
the  basis  for  all  agricultural  prosperity,  and 
that  man,  if  he  has  not  the  finest  horses, 
cattle  and  sheep,  has  no  one  to  blame  but 
himself.  Others  in  other  circumstances  may 
do  well,  he  can  hardly  help  doing  well  if  he 
will  try." 
i 


(54) 

Its  parentage  is  claimed  by  many  States,  and  it  is  probably  indigr 
enous  to  some  of  them,  though  some  authors  say  it  was  introduced 
from  Europe.  Let  that  be  as  it  may,  it  grows  readily  in  all  parts 
of  the  United  States  north  of  latitude  40°,  and  lower  down  on  suit- 
able soils.  It  flowers  in  earliest  summer,  and  gives  a  rich  pastur- 
age, except  in  the  driest  months,  all  the  year.  It  varies  in  size  in- 
different localities,  according  to  soil  and  climate.  From  the  unex- 
ampled success  its  cultivation  has  met  with  in  Kentucky,  it  has 
acquired  the  name  of  Kentucky  blue-grass.  The  June  or  wire 
grass  of  the  North  is  very  much  like  it  in  general  appearance,  but 
the  seed  stalk  is  flattened,  and  for  this  reason  the  botanical  name 
poa  compressa  is  given.  The  seeds  are  not  so  fuzzy  as  those  of  the 
Kentucky  blue- grass. 

In  all  the  middle  portions  of  the  United  States  it  forms  the  prin- 
cipal constituent  of  the  turf.  In  some  sections  it  has  been  used  as 
a  hay,  and  from  the  analysis  hereunto  appended,  it  is  full  of  all  the 
constituents  of  nutrition.  But  it  is  not  a  success  as  a  meadow  grass, 
its  chief  excellence  being  exhibited  as  a  pasture  grass.  It  endures 
the  frosts  of  winter  better  than  any  other  grass  we  have,  and  if  al- 
lowed to  grow  rank  during  the  fall  months,  it  will  turn  over  and 
hide  beneath  its  covering  the  most  luxuriant  of  winter  croppings. 
Many  farmers  pass  their  stock  through  the  entire  winter  on  it  alone, 
feeding  only  when  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow. 

As  a  lawn  grass  it  stands  pre-eminent  among  all  others,  its  rich 
Paris  green  foliage,  its  uniform  growth  and  its  constant  verdure 
making  it  beautiful  both  summer  and  winter. 

A  farm  well  set  in  blue-grass  will  yield  at  least  ten  dollars  pep 
acre  in  grazing,  and  yet  men  who  have  farms  with  all  the  constitu- 
ents necessary  to  produce  the  best  of  grass  will  persistently  wear 
them  out  in  cultivation  from  year  to  year,  with  less  net  receipts  by 
far  than  the  yield  of  a  pasture.  In  the  work  on  Wheat  Culture, 
issued  from  this  office,  it  has  been  shown  that  a  large  proportion  of 
Middle  and  East  Tennessee  abounds  in  limestone  rocks,  in  fact,  it 
underlies  the  Basin  of  Middle  Tennessee  and  forms  most  of  the 
foundations  of  the  Eastern  mountains.  The  blue-grass  of  Ken- 
tucky is  made  from  soil  produced  by  precisely  the  same  strata  of 
rocks  seen  here.  Any  farmer  having  land  showing  an  outcrop  of 
limestone  with  a  grayish  colored  subsoil,  may  be  assured  he  has  the- 
necessary  soil.  These  rocks  are  looked  upon  as  a  curse,  yet,  with- 


(55) 

out  their  presence,  we  could  not  have  the  magnificent  parks  of  blue- 
grass  seen  around. 

Blue-grass  lands  do  not  exist  everywhere  in  the  United  States, 
and  that  should  increase  their  value.  They  will  be  in  demand,  and 
that  soon.  The  wild  grasses  that  now  are  such  an  attraction  to 
immigrants,  on  the  table-lands  of  Tennessee,  will  ultimately  be  ex- 
hausted by  the  increase  in  population,  while  the  demand  for  food 
and  every  variety  of  domestic  animals  will  be  proportionably  aug- 
mented according  to  the  increase  of  the  population.  Then  every 
acre  of  land  that  will  produce  blue-grass  will  be  in  active  demand, 
and  will  be  devoted  to  stock  raising,  for  which  it  is  so  well  adapted, 
and  sheep  and  cattle  will  then  fleck  every  hillside. 

The  fame  of  the  Kentucky  blue -grass  is  so  great  that  the  majori- 
ty of  people  suppose  Tennessee  cannot  produce  it  so  well,  and  they 
demand  practical  evidence  of  the  fact.  We  have  that  very  evidence 
here  spread  out  before  our  eyes  in  the  magnificent  pastures  of  those 
who  have  adopted  the  proper  management.  Kentucky  has  famous 
pastures,  because,  in  the  outset  of  her  cultivation  of  the  blue-grass, 
a  system  of  management  was  adopted  that  proved  a  success.  That 
system  has  been  thoroughly  tested  both  in  Kentucky  and  in  some 
counties  in  Tennessee,  and  no  one  has  made  a  failure  who  has  at- 
tempted it.  Those  who  have  put  themselves  to  the  trouble  of 
learning  that  system,  and  putting  it  in  practice,  have  made  as  good 
grass  as  can  be  made  in  Kentucky  or  elsewhere.  As  in  other  crops, 
the  quantity  and  quality  of  grass  are  in  exact  proportion  to  the  care 
and  management  bestowed  upon  it,  and  the  sod  is  as  good,  the 
blades  as  wide  and  long  as  can  be  seen  anywhere,  but  this  all  de- 
pends on  the  skill  and  attention  of  the  farmer.  Some  will  sow  a 
lot  and  then  put  in  cattle,  horses,  sheep  and  hogs  to  keep  it  eaten 
to  the  ground  throughout  the  year.  Under  such  treatment  the 
grass  disappears,  and  such  farmers  conclude  their  soils  are  not 
adapted  to  grass.  Let  the  grass  'get  a  vigorous  start,  protect  it 
from  stock  for  the  first  year,  and  fertilize  it  with  stable  manure,  or 
some  of  the  superphosphates,  and  be  sure  not  to  overcrowd  the 
pasture  with  stock.  This  is  the  true  secret  of  having  good  pastures. 

Dr.  F.  H.  Gordon,  of  Smith  county,  spent  years  in  studying  the 
habits  of  blue- grass,  and  finally  succeded  in  giving  the  best  instruc- 
tions for  securing  a  stand :  • 

"Some  seventy   years   ago,"   be  says,   writing  in    1871,  "two 


(  56  ) 

young  men  named  Cunningham  came  from  the  south  branch  of  the 
Potomac,  in  Virginia,  to  Strode's  creek,  in  Bourbon  county,  Ken- 
tucky. They  had  studied  and  practiced  the  blue-grass  system  on 
the  Poioraac.  They  jointly  purchased  two  hundred  acres  of  land 
on  Strode's  creek,  and  sowed  the  whole  tract  in  timothy  and  blue- 
grass.  In  a  few  years  their  whole  tract  was  covered  with  a  luxuri- 
ant coat  of  grass.  They  had  brought  with  them  the  seed,  on  a 
pack  horse,  all  the  way  from  Virginia.  Their  farm  soon  attracted 
the  attention  of  their  neighbors  who  began  to  visit,  and  learn  how 
to  manage  grass.  In  1835  I,  too,  went  to  see  the  Cunninghams 
and  many  other  farmers  in  the  blue-grass  region,  in  order  to  learn 
the  system.  I  devoted  many  weeks  to  the  study  of  the  system — . 
going  with  the  best  farmers  over  their  farms  and  seeing  their  man- 
agement, asking  many  questions  and  writing  down  their  answers* 
Then,  the  Cunninghams,  like  many  others,  had  grown  to  be  wealthy 
on  the  profits  of  the  blue-grass.  One  of  them,  Hobert,  then  had 
two  thousand  acres  in  blue-grass  and  Isaac  had  three  thousand. 
Nearly  all  the  farmers  I  visited  owed  the  luxury  of  their  blue-grass 
to  the  direct  instruction  of  the  Cunninghams.  To  me  it  was  a  feast 
to  travel  over  and  view  the  fine  sod  of  grass  on  the  first  two  hun- 
dred acres  which  had  caused  the  whole  blue -grass  region  to  become 
so  beautiful,  prosperous  and  wealthy. 

While  learning  the  blue-grass  system,  I  saw  in  every  neighbor- 
hood that  those  who  had  studied  the  system  closest  had  the  best 
pastures  invariably.  You  can  see  in  all  that  region  of  blue-grass 
some  farms  where  all  the  lots  look  like  some  of  ours  in  Tennessee, 
which  are  gnawed  all  the  year  round  by  calves,  sheep  and  geese. 
This  is  because  the  owner  does  not  think  enough  about  its  manage- 
ment. He  does  all  the  work  and  incurs  all  the  expense  necessary 
to  make  the  richest  pastures,  and  then  wastes  it  all  by  bad  and 
thoughtless  management.  But  there  are  some  farmers  in  almost 
every  county  in  Tennessee  who  well  understand  the  Kentucky  sys- 
tem. Those  who  intend  to  sow  grass  may  learn  the  system  from 
them.  What  a  scene  of  comfort,  beauty,  luxury  and  wealth,  will 
this  whole  Middle  Tennessee  present,  when  it  shall  be  covered  with 
the  richest  blue-grass !  Such  will  be  the  future  of  this  fine  country." 

"Blue-grass  will  always  pay  a  good  profit.  Every  acre  set  in  it 
will  pay  its  taxes  and  a  good  profit  besides.  We  now  till  too  much 
land.  We  ought  to  till  less  and  make  more  grass.  Let  not  an 


(57) 

acre  be  idle.  There  is  our  true  interest.  Cotton,  tobacco,  rice, 
hemp  and  sugar  need  laborers,  but  grass  does  not.  If  we  sow  our 
lands  in  grass  we  can  do  without  so  much  labor.  The  indisposition 
of  farmers  to  take  advantage  of  experience  is  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing case,  which  is  in  point : 

"I  know  a  rocky  lot  of  about  six  acres  which  I  myself  sowed  in 
1835.  During  last  year  (1870)  it  afforded  a  profit  to  the  present 
owner  of  full  $10  per  acre.  The  owner  has  no  grass  on  the  balance 
of  his  land,  and  does  not  intend  to  have  any.  He  has  lived  during 
his  whole  life  in  sight  of  rich  pastures  of  blue  grass,  and  knows 
that  his  whole  tract  will  produce  as  good  grass  as  those  pastures, 
yet  he  will  not  sow  grass.  The  reader  will  say  that  this  farmer, 
with  his  six  rocky  acres  of  blue-grass,  is  a  singular  man.  But  he 
is  not  very  singular,  because  hundreds  of  farmers  here  know  just 
as  well  the  value  of  blue-grass  as  he  does,  and  yet  they  do  not 
sow  it. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  lands  most  productive  of  blue- 
grass  are  the  calcareous  soils.  Lime  is  a  natural  stimulant  to  it, 
and  it  flourishes  best  where  natural  supplies  of  this  salt  are  found. 
Go  into  a  pasture  that  has  an  occasional  out-cropping  of  limestone, 
and  the  sprigs  of  grass  surrounding  the  rocks  will  be  found  more 
luxuriant  than  anywhere  else.  Our  lower  silurian  formation  then, 
wherever  found,  may  be  safely  sown  in  this  grass.  The  Basin  of 
Middle  Tennessee,  and  the  valleys  of  East  Tennessee,  are  all  well 
suited  for  this  grass,  and  I  have  seen  some  good  sods  in  Carroll 
county,  West  Tennessee.  It  also  grows  upon  many  places  amongst 
the  hills  of  the  rivers,  though  not  so  luxuriantly  as  in  the  black 
loams  of  the  silurian  and  devonian  formations.  Lime,  though  a 
great  stimulant  to  its  growth,  is  not  an  essential  ingredient  in  the 
soil.  Blue  grass  will  always  grow  well  under  walnut  and  locust 
trees. 

We  have  in  Middle  and  East  Tennessee  the  same  character  of 
soil  that  exists  in  the  blue-grass  country  of  Kentucky,  and,  owing 
to  our  milder  climate,  can  produce  a  better  winter  pasturage  than 
can  be  produced  in  the  colder  climate  of  Kentucky.  Little  land 
exists  in  Tennessee  but  what  will  produce  this  grass  profitably. 

Select  the  lot  to  be  sown,  and  clean  off  all  brush,  leaves  and 
briars.  If  it  cannot  be  done  with  a  stalk-rake,  use  hand- rakes,  as 
the  seed  must  come  in  contact  with  the  soil.  Seed  sown  on  a  bed 


(58) 

of  leaves  will  soon  germinate,  but  the  rootlets,  being  unable  to 
burrow  in  the  soil,  will  quickly  parch  up  and  die.  If  the  land  is 
thickly  covered  with  trees  it  will  not  thrive  well,  therefore  it  is 
necessary  the  timber  should  be  thinned  out.  Leave  the  tallest 
trees  that  are  really  the  more  valuable,  taking  off  the  low,  bushy 
kinds  that  make  too  much  shade.  It  is  ar»  admitted  fact  that  blue- 
grass  does  better  in  partial  shade  than  where  there  is  none.  It  does 
not  endure  a  drought  as  well  as  some  other  grasses,  and,  conse- 
quently, some  degree  of  shade  is  essential  to  protect  it  from  the 
scorching  rays  of  midsummer. 

So  many  seasons  have  been  recommended  as  the  proper  time  of 
sowing,  that  it  may  be  said  each  one,  under  favorable  circumstances, 
is  a  good  time.  One  Kentucky  farmer  says :  "Anytime  in  the 
winter,  when  snow  is  on  the  ground,  sow  broadcast  from  three 
to  four  quarts  of  seed  to  the  acre.  With  the  spring  the  seeds 
germinate,  and  are  very  fine  and  delicate  in  the  sprouts.  No 
stock  should  be  allowed  for  the  first  year,  nor  until  the  grass 
seeds  in  June  for  the  first  time  the  second  year.  The  best  plan 
is  to  turn  on  the  stock  when  the  seeds  ripen  in  June.  Graze  off 
the  grass,  then  allow  the  fall  growth  and  graze  all  winter,  taking 
care  never  to  feed  the  grass  closely  at  any  time." 

Another  authority  says:  "Follow  nature  and  obey  her  dictates. 
The  seeds  ripen  in  June,  and  are  scattered  by  the  winds  and  rains 
as  soon  as  ripe,  therefore  sow  the  seeds  as  soon  as  they  can  be 
gathered." 

This  plan  might  be  a  proper  one  in  a  colder  or  moister  climate 
than  ours,  but  here  it  would  result  in  the  grass  being  often  dried 
up  by  the  droughts  that  are  almost  invariable  in  the  latter  part  of 
summer. 

Many  sow,  as  stated  in  the  above  quotation,  on  winter  snows,, 
and  that  is  a  very  good  plan,  but  care  should  be  observed  to  have 
the  ground  free  from  leaves  before  the  snow  falls. 

There  are  others  who  sow  in  the  latter  part  of  February  or  the 
first  of  March,  and  this  sometimes  does  as  well  as  any,  provided 
time  is  given  for  the  grass  to  get  sufficient  hold  to  resist  the  wither- 
ing effects  of  the  summer's  drought.  The  main  eare  to  be  taken 
is  to  get  the  grass  large  enough  to  live  through  freezing  or  dry 
weather.  It  will  resist  the  effects  of  frost  better  than  heat,  how- 


(  59  ) 

ever,  and,  taking  this  into  consideration,  the  most  approved  time 
of  sowing  is  in  the  latter  part  of  August  or  first  of  September.  If 
sown  at  this  time  the  autumnal  rains  will  germinate  the  seed, 
and  besides,  at  this  season,  there  is  comparatively  little  trash  on 
the  ground,  the  leaves  having  ^not  yet  fallen.  The  ground  being 
prepared,  the  seeds  are  sown  broadcast,  at  the  rate  of  one  bushel 
per  acre,  and  the  sower  should  be  followed  with  a  harrow,  or,  if  the 
ground  is  very  loose,  with  a  stiff  brush.  This  will  give  them  a 
sufficient  covering.  It  is  a  fact,  demonstrated  by  actual  experi- 
ment, as  shown  in  one  of  the  tables  herein  contained,  that  grass 
seeds  will  vegetate  best  at  a  depth  of  one- quarter  of  an  inch.  It 
may  be  supposed  that,  with  no  more  covering  than  will  be  given 
by  a  harrow  or  brush,  a  great  many  seeds  will  be  uncovered.  This 
is  very  true,  but  in  one  pound  of  blue-grass  seeds  (clean  seed)  there 
are  3,888,000  seeds.  By  a  computation  every  square  inch  of  sur- 
face contains  from  ten  to  twelve  seeds.  With  this  amount  on  the 
surface,  one  scarcely  need  fear  a  stand,  when,  if  one  or  two  take 
root,  there  will  be  in  a  year  an  excessively  close  turf. 

There  can  be  but  little  difference  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the 
treading  of  stock  after  sowing.  All  writers  and  farmers  agree  that 
for  one  year,  at  least,  it  should  be  kept  from  all  stock.  After  that 
there  is  some  difference. 

Dr.  Gordon,  who,  as  before  stated,  paid  more  attention  to  it  than 
any  one  else  in  the  State,  adopted  a  plan  of  management  that  has 
been  repeatedly  tested,  with  uniform  success.  It  was  this: 

He  sowed,  either  in  the  autumn  or  spring  months,  indiscrimi- 
nately, as  suited  his  convenience.  He  usually  sowed  with  rye, 
wheat  or  barley,  if  sowed  in  an  open  field,  but  if  in  a  woods  lot, 
he  sowed  with  rye,  or  after  a  crop  of  millet.  At  any  rate,  the  soil 
must  be  well  cleaned  off"  and  broken  up,  as  well  as  the  nature  of 
the  land  permits,  then,  after  the  grain  is  sown  the  land  is  harrowed, 
and  if  possible  rolled.  After  this  the  grass  seeds  were  sown  and 
brushed  lightly.  Immediately  afterward,  all  the  cattle,  horses  and 
sheep  were  turned  in  that  could  be  secured.  If  there  was  not 
enough  on  his  place  he  borrowed  his  neighbor's  stock,  and  let  them 
run  on  it  until  the  ground  was  well  packed  all  over  the  surface, 
and  then,  and  not  until  then,  were  they  removed.  If  after  millet 
(and  that  is  greatly  recommended,  as  it  destroys  more  effictively 
than  anything  else  all  weeds),  harrow  about  the  first  of  September 


(60) 

thoroughly,  sow  the  seed,  brush  as  before,  and  then  turn  on  the 
stock.  If  it  is  desired  to  sow  in  the  spring,  in  the  latter  part  of 
February  or  early  in  March;  if  not  practicable  sooner,  harrow  the 
grain  field,  the  ground  having  been  well  prepared  in  the  fall  sow- 
ing, sow  the  seed  and  then  turn  stqck  on  the  wheat,  rye  or  barley, 
as  the  case  may  be.  Oat  land  may  be  sown  in  the  same  way.  The 
treading  of  the  stock  packs  in  the  seeds  and  prevents  the  grass  from 
drying  up  in  the  summer  heats,  or  freezing  out  in  frosts.  Dr. 
Gordon  considered  an  open,  loose,  porous  surface  to  be  unfavorable 
to  the  safety  of  the  young  grass,  but  if  packed  as  directed,  the 
grass  will  spring  quickly  up,  get  a  firm  hold,  and  the  loose  con- 
dition of  the  sub-soil  will  favor  the  transmission  of  the  roots  to  a 
good  depth. 

The  after  treatment  is  simple,  and  that  is  to  allow  no  stock  on 
during  the  first  year,  but  as  soon  as  the  seed  stalks  begin  to  shoot 
up  the  next  year,  pasture  it  so  closely  that  it  cannot  go  to  seed. 

Dr.  Gordon  differs  in  this  respect  from  other  authors,  who  allow 
it  to  seed  one  time  for  purposes  stated  below.  He  would  not  let  it 
seed  at  all.  His  great  success  in  this  branch  of  agriculture  will, 
in  every  place  where  he  is  known,  give  weight  to  his  authority. 

Others  say  no  stock  should  go  on  it  for  at  least  two  years,  or  at 
least  until  after  the  first  seeding,  which  will  take  place  in  June  of 
the  second  year.  Some  of  the  best  blue -grass  lots  in  Middle  Ten- 
nessee have  been  started  by  following  either  of  the  above  plans. 
Of  one  thing  there  cannot  be  a  doubt,  and  that  is  the  ground  should 
not  be  well  broken  up.  On  the  surface  it  should  be  as  firmly 
packed  as  possible  to  secure  a  perfect  stand,  and  form  a  perfect  turf. 
When  the  surface  is  too  loose,  the  grass  easily  dries  up  and  is  much 
easier  frozen  out,  the  seeds  not  going  into  a  germinating  depth. 
Under  favorable  weather,  seed  sown  in  the  spring  on  a  crop  of  oats 
will  do  as  well  as  fall  sowing.  What  is  meant  by  favorable  weather 
is  that  no  unusual  dry  weather  supervenes.  But  there  is  always 
the  risk  of  meeting  with  unfavorable  weather  in  spring  sowing,  and 
on  that  account  we  would  recommend  sowing;  in  autumn.  But  it 
is  better  the  sowing  should  take  place  as  early  in  the  fall  as  the 
weather  will  permit,  or,  indeed,  the  latter  part  of  summer,  if  there 
is  a  proper  degree  of  moisture  in  the  soil.  Some  farmers  sow  a 
limited  amount  of  seed  daily,  and  over  the  same  surface  sprinkle 
shelled  corn,  then  turn  on  their  hogs.  They  root  in  search  of 


(  61  ) 

the  corn,  and  thus  plant  the  seed,  doing  the  work  of  plow  and 
harrow. 

This,  to  say  the  least,  is  a  slovenly  plan,  and  though  possibly 
securing  a  good  stand,  the  ground  is  so  roughened  it  can  never 
make  a  beautiful  pasture. 

If  the  land  is  loose,  as  some  soils  are,  it  will  answer  a  very  good 
purpose  to  scratch  up  the  surface  well  with  a  sharp-toothed  harrow, 
and  this  is  especially  the  case  where  the  roots  of  undergrowth  exist 
to  a  great  extent. 

AFTER  TREATMENT. 

Of  one  fact  there  cannot  be  a  doubt,  and  in  this  lies  the  whole 
secret  of  having  remunerative  pastures  of  blue  grass ;  and  that  is 
do  not  pasture  it  to  death.  It  is  true  it  will  stand  almost  unlimited 
grazing,  but  there  is  a  point  beyond  which  it  will  cease  to  be  profit- 
able, and  that  limit  should  never  be  passed.  The  better  plan  is  to 
have  the  lots  divided,  and  allow  the  stock  on  one  until  it  is  cropped 
down,  and  then,  when  no  longer  any  pickings  can  be  taken  from 
it,  do  not  allow  the  stock  to  continue  to  tread  it,  simply  to  have 
them  on  a  grass  lot.  It  will  not  only  do  the  stock  no  good,  but, 
by  constant  tramping,  the  grass  is  unable  to  throw  up  any  foliage, 
and  in  time  it  will  die,  for  the  roots  must  draw  some  nourishment 
from  the  atmosphere,  or  they  will  perish.  Allow  the  grass  to  re- 
cuperate by  changing  the  stock  from  one  pasture  to  another,  and 
never  overstock  it.  Grass  that  will  keep  ten  oxen  in  growing  order 
will  fatten  five  oxen  quickly.  Stock  of  all  kinds  are  constant 
feeders,  and  there  should  always  be  forage  enough  to  enable  them 
to  get  plenty  to  eat  without  the  labor  of  hunting  for  it. 

There  is  much  variety  of  opinion  on  the  amount  of  stock  that 
ought  to  be  put  on  an  acre.  This  arises  from  the  difference  in  the 
capacity  of  the  land,  some  soils,  being  rich,  dry  and  porous,  will 
stand  much  heavier  grazing  than  others.  It  is  safer  to  err  on  the 
safe  side,  and  it  is  better  to  put  in  too  few  than  too  many.  If 
stock  are  fattened  quickly,  they  are  more  remunerative  than  when 
fattened  slowly.  Then,  when  one  lot  is  sold  out,  they  can  be  re- 
placed by  others.  Ordinarily.,  two  acres  of  grass  are  requisite  for 
one  three-year-old  ox,  and  what  will  fatten  one  ox  will  fatten  ten 
head  of  sheep. 

Blue-grass  should  be  allowed  to  go  to  seed  once  or  twice,  or 


(62) 

•until  the  ground  is  well  set  or  turfed  over,  and  then  never  more. 
It  is  a  arass  that  propagates  itself  by  its  creeping  roots  or  rhizomes, 
and  it  is  the  disposition  of  all  plants  and  animals  to  lose  vitality  in 
the  process  of  reproduction. 

Though  perennial,  its  vitality  may  be  greatly  lowered  by  the  ef- 
fort of  reproduction,  so  that  it  may  lie  dormant  for  some  time  after- 
-ward,  before  starting  again  its  vigorous  growth.  Stock  should  be 
kept  out  at  seeding  time,  or  before,  in  fact,  so  as  not  to  eat  down 
the  seed  stalks. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  dry  weather  sets  in  during  the  sum- 
mer months,  and  the  grass  becomes  so  dry  it  will  burn.  Still 
stock  will  greedily  eat  it.  The  grass  having  dried  full  of  nourish- 
ing juices,  it  is  equal  to  the  best  of  hay,  and  stock  will  still  fatten 
upon  it. unless  the  dried  grass  has  been  drenched  with  rains. 

The  fall  growth  of  some  lots  should  be  kept  untouched  by  stock, 
~&nd  in  this  way  a  fine  winter  pasturage  will  be  secured.  The  grass 
will  get  high  enough  to  fall  over  and  protect  the  surface  foliage, 
.and  stock  will  keep  up  their  flesh  on  it  during  the  winter  without 
feed.  When  snows  fall,  cattle  will  require  to  be  fed,  but  horses, 
mules  and  sheep  will  paw  off  the  snow,  unless  it  is  too  deep,  and 
get  at  the  grass.  It  is  the  first  deciduous  plant  that  puts  forth  its 
leaves  in  the  spring.  Good  fat  lambs  can  be  sent  into  the  market 
earlier  than  from  any  other  grass.  It  makes  milk  rich  in  butter, 
and  gives  the  latter  a  fine  golden  .color,  without  changing  its  taste, 
-or,  like  clover,  imparting  its  peculiar  flavor  to  it. 

The  following  is  an  analysis  of  this  grass,  as  compared  with  some 
other  well  known  grasses.  (Way.) 

FIRST. — DRIED   AT   A   TEMPERATURE   OF    212°.      . 


100  PARTS  OF 

11! 

*£ 

tl 

*£ 

cjg 
ts'S  a- 

flll 

£f£ 

11 

££ 

| 

Blue-grass  give  

1035 

263 

4306 

3802 

5.94 

Timothy  

11  36 

355 

5335 

2646 

5  28 

Orchard  grass  

1353 

3  14 

4432 

3370 

5  31 

Clover  

2255 

367 

4447 

1975 

956 

White  clover  

1876 

438 

4004 

2653 

1029 

Sweet  scented  vernal  

10.43 

3.41 

43.48 

36.36 

6.36 

(63) 

SECOND. — AS   TAKEN    FROM   THE  "FIELD    IN    BLOSSOM. 


WITHOUT  DRYING,   100   PARTS  OP 

(4 

? 

w>£ 

11! 

fe£ 

5-1 
*$ 

if!  ii 

Is  ^ 

Blue-grass  give  

67  14 

341 

086 

1415     1249 

7000 

406 

094 

1330-    1011 

Timothy  

57  21 

486 

1  50 

22  85'    11  32 

81  01 

427 

096 

8  45  1      3  76 

79  71 

380 

089 

814'      538 

Sweet  scented  vernal  j 

80.35 

2.05 

0.67 

8.54!     7.15 

There  is,  in  all  pastures,  a  number  of  bare  spots  that  seem  to  re- 
sist the  efforts  of  blue  grass  to  sod.  By  mixing  other  seeds  with  the 
blue-grass,  these  spots  can  be  made  to  produce  as  well  as  other 
places.  In  a  natural  meadow,  by  careful  counting,  several  species 
are  often  found  growing  intimately  on  every  inch  of  earth.  On  a 
good  natural  pasture  in  one  square  foot  of  sod,  there  have  been 
counted  1,000  plants,  consisting  of  twenty  distinct  species.  This  is 
nature's  own  arrangement,  and  may  be  safely  cop'e  1.  In  such  a 
pasture  not  an  inch  of  surface  is  unoccupied.  It  may  be  thought 
an  inch  or  two  here  and  there  makes  but  little  difference  in  the 
space  occupied.  But  every  blade  of  grass  is  of  some  importance, 
and  it  is  astonishing  the  aggregate  of  these  barren  places. 

Now,  once  more,  let  it  be  urged  on  the  farmers  of  Tennessee  to 
look  into  this  matter  of  pastures,  and  provide  themselves  with  this 
highly  important  adjunct  to  every  farm.  No  home  is  complete 
without  pastures,  and  yet  there  are  many  who  will  depend  either 
upon  the  fortuitous  wild  grasses  for  grazing,  or  feed  their  stock 
from  the  crib  all  through  the  year.  With  a  rich  blue-grass  lot, 
no  stock  need  be  fed,  except  while  at  work ;  and,  indeed,  it  is 
sometimes  the  case  that  in  dry,  scarce  years,  crops  have  been  made 
with  horses  and  mules  that  had  no  other  provender  than  a  blue- 
grass  lot. 

SHEEP'S  FESCUE— (Festuca  ovina— Perennial.) 

The  fescue  grasses  are  very  popular  in  New  England,  and  grow 
well  in  Tennessee,  having  been  introduced  in  some  localities.  They 
are  perennial,  and  grow  in  tufts,  and  from  their  profuse  foliage 
they  form  excellent  pasturage  for  cattle,  and  especially  for  sheep, 


(  64) 

hence  the  name  of  one  variety.  Mixed  with  other  grasses  the 
sheep's  fescue  would  be  a  good  addition  to  our  native  grasses.  It 
would  be  especially  useful  on  dry  hill- sides,  or  sandy,  old  fields, 
where  blue-grass  will  not  thrive  well.  It  has  long  leaves,  and  they 
are  much  sought  for  by  cattle.  It  has  been  grown  extensively  in 
East  Tennessee,  and  is  grown  in  some  localities  in  Davidson  county, 
without  much  success.  The  Hon.  Staunton  Gould  says  this  grass 
forms  the  great  bulk  of  the  sheep  pastures  of  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland,  where  it  is  the  favorite  food  of  the  sheep,  and  where  the 
shepherds  believe  it  to  be  more  nutritious  for 
flocks  than  any  other.  Gmelin  says  the  Tartars 
choose  to  encamp  during  the  summer  where  this 
grass  is  most  abundant,  because  they  believe  it  to 
be  the  most  wholesome  for  all  cattle,  but  es- 
pecially for  sheep.  Linnaeus  asserts  that  sheep 
have  no  relish  for  hills  and  heaths  without  it. 
It  grows  in  dry  sandy  soils,  where  all  other  veg- 
etation parches  up.  The  roots  are  long,  turf 
short  and  dense,  making  it  well  suited  for  lawns. 
It  retains  its  verdure  during  the  most  extended 
droughts.  It  will  not  bear  maturing,  for  then  it 
is  dispossessed  by  other  grasses.  Its  great  value 
is  for  pasturage  upon  sandy  soils.  It  will  suit 
the  Cumberland  Table- land.  The  "Woburn  ex- 
periments showed  that,  cut  at  the  time  of  flow- 
ering, the  product  of  one  acre  was  5,445  pounds, 
which  gave  212  pounds  of  nutritive  matter.  The 
same  number  of  pounds  was  obtained,  cut  when 
the  seeds  were  ripe,  but  there  were  only  127 
pounds  of  nutritive  matter.  The  aftermath 
yielded  3,403  pounds  of  hay,  having  66  pounds 
of  nutritive  matter.  From  this  it  appears  that  there  is  a  difference 
between  the  results  obtained  by  chemists  and  practical  feeders  as  to 
its  nutritive  properties. 


(  65  ) 


GRASS-EVERGREEN  GKASS 

This  grass  has  received  some  attention  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  State,  and  has  met  with  a 
warm  reception  from  those  testing  it.  It  ripens 
its  seed  long  before  any  other  grass,  and,  conse- 
quently, affords  a  very  early  nip  to  cattle.  It 
has  been  raised  under  various  names,  in  Vir- 
ginia, as  "  Randall  Grass,"  in  North  Carolina  as 
"  Evergreen  Grass."  In  the  mountain  lands  of 
Virginia,  a  writer  says  :  "  The  variety  of  forage 
best  adapted  to  sheep-grazing  on  the  mountain 
lands  is  the  '  Randall,'  a  tall,  coarse  grass, 
growing  freely  on  the  rocky  soil  to  a  height  of 
six  feet,  remaining  green  and  affording  fine  herb- 
age all  the  winter." 

Mr.  James  Taylor,  writing  to  the  Agricultural 
Bureau  from  North  Carolina,  says  : 

"  The  evergreen  grass  is  very  good  for  pastur- 
ing through  the  fall  and  winter.  I  have  no 
knowledge  of  its  origin.  It  will  do  best  when 
sown  on  dry  land,  and  is  well  adapted  to  sheep. 
It  grows  well  on  rocky  soil,  to  the  height  of  four 
or  five  feet  when  ripe,  continuing  green  in  the 
spring,  and  affording  fine  herbage  throughout 
the  winter.  It  is  best  to  sow  in  the  spring  with  oats.  A  peck  of 
well  cleaned  seed  is  enough  for  an  acre,  or  a  bushel  in  the  chaff. 
It  ripens  about  the  first  of  June,  or  a  little  before  rye  harvest,  and 
is  cut  with  scythe  and  cradle  as  we  cut  rye." 
TALL  FESCUE  G-RASS—  (Festuca  elatior.) 

This  is  a  variety  of  the  same,  naturalized  from  Europe,  and  suited 
to  a  rich  loam,  such  as  is  found  in  the  Central  Basin.  The  Woburn 
experiments  show  it  to  yield  more  nutritious  matter  per  acre,  when 
rut  in  flower,  than  any  other  grass,  cut  either  in  flower  or  seed. 
The  number  of  pounds  obtained  was  51,046,  which  weighed,  when 
dry,  17,866  pounds,  loss  in  drying,  33,180  pounds  and  furnished 
3,988  pounds  of  nutritive  extract. 

There  are  several  other  fescue  grasses,  as  Ihe  Spiked  Fescue, 
(F.  loleacea),  Hard  Fescue,  (F.  duriuscula],  and  the  Nodding  Fes- 
cue (F.  utans),  all  indigenous  to  this  country.  The  last  two  are 
good  hay  grasses,  as  well  as  the  Meadow  Fescue.  The  Hard  Fescue 
was  analyzed  by  Way  and  found  to  contain  water,  69.33;  flesh- 
5 


(66) 

formers,  3.70;  fat,  1.02;  heat- producers,  12.46;  woody  fibre,  11.83; 
ash,  1.66.  The  Woburn  experiments  gave  as  the  produce  of  one 
acre,  18,376  pounds,  cut  in  flower;  loss  in  drying  10,116  pounds; 
nutritive  matter,  1,004  pounds.  Cut  in  seed,  the  produce  weighed 
19,075  pounds,  loss  in  drying,  10,481  pounds,  leaving  nutritive  ex- 
tract, 446  pounds.  It  grows  well  on  a  sandy  loam.  The  seeds 
weigh  ten  pounds  to  the  bushel. 
TALL  MEADOW  OAT  GHA.SS—(Arrhenatherumavenaceum.) 

This  grass  is  very  popular  in  France,  from  whence  it  was  intro- 
duced, and  is  there  known  by  the  name  of  "Ray  Grass." 

It  will  grow  well  on  any  land  that  produces  clover.  Its  limit  is 
about  1,500  feet  above  the  sea.  It  grows  quickly  and  forms  a  very 
excellent  grass  for  early  pasturage,  probably  earlier  than  any  other. 
It  is  mown  down  for  hay,  and,  after  cutting,  it  throws  up  a  perfect 
mat  of  aftermath,  that  will  yield  an  extremely  rich  pasture.  It 
was  only  introduced  into  Tennessee  a  few  years  ago,  and  it  has  re- 
ceived extravagant  praises,  as  is  usual  with  new  introductions. 
It  succeeds  well  in  West  Tennessee,  and  will  probably  suit  that 
locality  better  than  any  other  grass,  ex- 
cept Herd's  grass.  It  would  form  a 
good  grass  to  mix  with  others,  such  as 
timothy,  Herd's  grass,  clover  or  blue- 
grass. 

The  analysis  of  the  hay  by  Way,  is  as 
follows:  Flesh -formers,  12.95;  fatty 
matters,  3.19  ;  heat-producing  principles, 
38.03;  woody  fibre,  34.24;  mineral  mat- 
ters, 11.59. 

This  shows  it  to  rank  as  a  nutritious 
the  best   of  the  meadow 


among 

grasses,  and  almost  equal  to  any  of  the 
pasture  grasses,  though  it  is  said  cattle  and 
sheep  do  not  like  to  be  confined  to  it  alone. 
The  produce  from  an  acre  from  Mr.  Sin- 
clair's experiments  at  Woburn,  was  17,- 
015  pounds;  loss  in  drying  11,635  pounds  ; 
nutritive  matter,  664  pounds.  Cut  when 
the  seeds  were  ripe  the  weight  was  16,335 
pounds;  loss  in  drying,  10,617  pounds; 
nutritive  matter,  255  pounds.  Weight 
of  aftermath,  13,612  pounds ;  nutritive 
matter  of  which  was  265  pounds. 


(  67) 
SWEET-SCENTED  VERNAL  GnASS-(AnthoXanthUm  odoratum.) 

This  grass  was  introduced  from  Europe,  and 
possesses  rather  poor  qualities  as  a  pasture  grass, 
as  neither  sheep  nor  cattle  relish  it.  It  is  early, 
however,  and  hardy.  It  is  one  of  the  first  as 
well  as  one  of  the  last  grasses  that  appear.  Its 
nutritive  qualities  are  said  to  exist  to  a  much 
larger  extent  in  the  fall  than  in  the  spring,  and 
greater  when  cut  at  maturity  than  in  bloom. 
It  has  a  mixture  of  benzoic  acid  among  its  con- 
stituents, which  imparts  to  it  a  highly  aromatic 
character,  and  this  is  so  strong  that  other  grasses 
with  which  it  may  be  mixed  are  affected  by  it. 
It  is  not  in  general  use  in  Tennessee,  but  would 
probably  add  to  the  value  of  pastures  if  sown 
with  other  grasses.  Cows  running  on  it  are,  by 
some,  said  to  give  a  rich  milk  and  highly  fla- 
vored butter,  but  Mr.  Gould  thinks  this  is  an 
error.  It  may  be  known  by  rubbing  its  green 
leaves  in  the  fingers,  to  which  it  yields  its  scent. 
On  certain  soils  favorable  to  its  growth,  it  will 
root  out  almost  every  other  kind  aod  take  com- 
plete possession.  Its  seeds  have  a  spiral  awn,  and  when  taken  in 
the  hand,  affected  by  its  moisture,  the  awns  will  uncoil,  and  the 
seeds  will  appear  to  move  as  insects.  There  are  six  or  seven 
pounds  in  a  bushel,  and  nine  hundred  and  twenty-three  thousand 
two  hundred  in  a  pound.  Its  analysis,  according  to  Way,  ranks  it, 
when  dry,  a  litttle  higher  than  blue-grass,  as  follows:  Flesh- 
formers,  10.43;  fatty  matters,  3.41;  and  heat  producing  principles, 
43.48.  Blue-grass  gives,  flesh-formers,  10.35 ;  fat,  2.63;  heat-pro- 
ducers, 43.06. 

The  best  test  of  all  grasses  is  their  effects  upon  animals.  If  ani- 
mals thrive  and  fatten  upon  any  grass,  and  that  grass  is  perennial, 
hardy  and  durable,  it  is  a  good  pasture  grass ;  otherwise  not,  what- 
ever individual  experiments  in  the  laboratory  may  indicate.  We 
know  that  stock  of  all  kinds  eat  blue  grass  voraciously  and  thrive 
upon  it ;  we  know,  also,  that  they  do  not  like  the  anthoxanthum. 
Both  are  alike  hardy  and  durable.  Therefore  the  blue-grass,  upon 
suitable  soils,  is  to  be  preferred,  whatever  chemical  research  may 
determine. 


(  68  ) 
•WHITE  CLOVER— ( Trijolium  repens.) 

White  clover  has  been  lauded  to  the  skies  by  some,  and  by  others 
depreciated  as  a  vile  weed.  It  is  beyond  question,  next  to  blue- 
grass,  one  of  our  most  valuable  grazing  plants.  Its  analysis  shows 
it  to  be  equal  to  red  clover  in  most  respects,  and  superior  as  a  fat 
producing  plant. 

It  is  to  the  pasture  what  red  clover  is  to  the  meadow,  and  is  a 
suitable  food  not  only  for  cattle  and  horses,  but  for  hogs.  They 
thrive  amazingly  on  .  .  After  the  first  flowering  it  salivates  horses, 
1<:but  has  no  such  effect  upon  cattle  or  sheep. 
As  a  honey-producing  flower,  the  white 
clover  is  not  surpassed  by  any  plant,  the 
florets,  some  years,  being  almost  full  of 
syrup. 

It  varies  very  much  in  different  years, 
sometimes  almost  disappearing,  then  again, 
another  year,  being  thick  in  every  pasture. 
So  much  is  this  the  case,  that  we  have  what 
are  called  "  white  clover  years."  This  is  due 

to  the  presence  or  absence  of  rain.     When 

there  is  a  wet  spring  white  clover  appears  in  great  luxuriance  every- 
where, and  in  dry  weather  it  only  shows  itself  in  abundance  on 
moist  lands. 

It  is  indigenous  to  both  Europe  and  the  United  States,  and, 
though  growing  everywhere  here,  it  has  to  be  sown  on  the  Northern 
pastures.  Here  it  comes  spontaneously,  almost  taking  every  other 
grass,  and  sometimes  destroying  other  grasses.  It  is  an  invaluable 
accompaniment  of  blue  grass,  especially  triumphant  where  the  blue- 
grass  is  pastured  too  heavily. 

The  comparative  value  of  white  and  red  clover,  cut  in  bloom, 
may  be  seen  by  the  following  analyses  by  Prof.  Way  : 


Si 

1 

2 

1 
«d 

CLOVEBS. 

•S 

1 

"S 

*t 

3 

^ 

<8 

w 

§ 

E 

g 

Red  clover  ,  

81  01 

427 

69 

845 

3  76 

1  82 

"White  clover  

79.71 

3.80 

.89 

8.14 

6.38 

2.08 

—  .  —  —  s 

(69) 

JAPAN  CLOVER  OB  KING  GRASS.— Lespedeza  atriata.) 

It  has  been  but  a  few  years  since  this  plant  has  been  brought  to 
notice  in  this  country,  though  its  existence  was  mentioned  as  early 
as  1784  by  Thunberg,  a  German  chemist,  who  saw  it  growing  in 
Japan.  About  the  year  1849  it  was  noticed  in  the  vicinity  of 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  the  seeds  having  been  brought  probably  from 
Japan  or  China  in  tea  boxes.  A  short  while  afterwards  it  was  dis- 
covered at  a  distance  of  forty  miles  from  Charleston,  and  still  later 
near  Macon,  Ga. 

Within  the  last  six  years  it  has  developed  itself  in  many  of  the 
counties  of  this  State,  especially  in  Henderson  and  Warren,  where 
it  is  covering  all  old  fields,  and  in  many  instances  rooting  out 
broom  grass  and  other  grasses,  showing  itself  well  worthy  of  the 
name  given  it  by  Mr.  Pendleton,  of  king  grass. 

It  seems  especially  adapted  to  the  Southern  States,  not  flourish- 
ing above  36°,  growing  with  great  luxuriance  on  the  poorest  soils, 
and  retaining  vitality  in  its  roots  in  the  severest  droughts.  It  ia 
said  to  be  a  fine  plant  for  grazing,  and  being  perennial  in  warm 
climates,  needs  no  re-sowing  and  but  little  attention.  On  soils 
unfit  for  anything  else,  it  furnishes  good  pasture  and  supplies  a 
heavy  green  crop  for  turning  under  and  improving  the  land.  It 
cannot  stand  severe  cold,  and  in  high  latitudes  cannot  be  depended 
on  as  a  good  pasture  grass,  although  it  comes  up  and  supplies  an 
abundant  forage  for  a  few  months.  It  should  be  sown  in  January 
or  February  in  the  Southern  States,  and  about  one  bushel  of  seed 
to  ten  acres  is  required  to  secure  a  good  stand  the  first  year.  It  is 
said  to  be  an  excellent  renovator  of  old  fields,  and  to  bring  them 
up  to  a  high  degree  of  fertility  in  an  incredibly  short  space  of  time. 

Mr.  E.  M.  Pendleton,  of  Georgia,  speaking  of  it,  says :  "  I  am 
willing  to  concede  to  it  several  things  that  do  not  apply  to  any 
other  plant  we  have  ever  grown  in  this  latitude: 

1.  "It  grows  on  poor  land  with  more  luxuriance  than  any  other 
grass  or  weed  I  have  ever  seen;  and  as  it  has  a  small  leaf,  rather 
contravenes  the  general  idea  of  vegetable  physiologists,  that  large- 
leaved  plants  feed  mostly  on  the  atmosphere.     I  suppose,  however, 
that  this  deficiency  is  counteracted  to  a  large  extent  by  the  number 
of  leaves,  for  they  are  legion. 

2.  "  It  has  great  powers  of  endurance,  so  far  as  the  roots  are 
-concerned;  but  the  branches  and  leaves  will  parch  and  die  out 


(  70) 

under  a  burning  sun  very  soon,  especially  where  it  grows  sparsely. 
During  a  wet  summer  it  luxuriates  wherever  propegated  on  poor 
hill-sides  as  well  as  meadow  lands.  It  loves,  however,  rainy 
seasons  on  thirsty  lands,  and  I  fear  will  not  prove  to  be  all  we  desire 
in  such  localities.  It,  however,  reminds  us  of  an  anecdote  of  Mr. 
Dickson,  when  he  was  showing  some  gentlemen  his  farm  during 
the  prevalence  of  a  severe  drought.  As  they  passed  through  a 
cornfield  in  which  some  of  the  stalks  were  actually  dying  for  lack 
of  moisture,  one  of  them  called  his  attention  to  several  in  that  con- 
dition. "  Yes,"  said  he,  "  I  perceive  the  fact— but  it  dies  game." 
And  so  of  the  Japan  clover,  it  dies  from  severe  drought,  but  rallies 
again  as  soon  as  the  rain  sets  in. 

3.  "  It  is  a  good  pasturage  for  stock,  and   I  think  would  make 
good  hay,  if  cut   and  cured.     This   I  intend  to  test  the  present 
season.     But  I  do  not  believe  that  our  stock   like  it  as  well  as  the 
native  grasses,  and  doubt  whether  it  is  as  nutritious  as  the  Ber- 
muda.    As  cattle  love  variety,  however,  this  may  subserve  a  good 
purpose  in  that  way.     My  opinion,  however,  is,  from  not  very  close 
observation  in  the  matter,  that  they  would  soon  tire  out  on  it  ex- 
clusively. 

4.  "  It  furnishes  a  large  supply  of  vegetable  matter  to  the  soil, 
and  I  belive  will  prove  to  be  the  best  humus  making  plant  we 
have  at  the  South,  where  so  much  is  needed  from  our  clean  cotton 
culture.     As  it  is  said  to  be  difficult  to  gather  the  seed  in   large 
quantities,  I  intend  to  plow  up  the  surface  where  it  has  seeded,  and 
rake  up  the  grass  and  top  soil,  and  sow  this  dirt  over  my  oat  and 
wheat  fields,  and  especially  on  the  poor  places.     My  opinion  is  that 
a  most  luxuriant  growth  of  this  clover  will  follow,  which  can  be 
turned  under  in  the  fall  while  green,  and  thus  furnish  not  only 
humus  but  nitrogen  to  the  soil. 

5.  "  Another  rare  quality  of  this  plant  is  indicated  in  the  name  I 
have  given  it — king  grass — in  the  fact  that  it  absolutely  roots  out 
and  destroys  every  living  plant  in  its  widespread  path.     Not  even 
old  Bermuda,  which  has  so  long  held  undisputed  sway  over  his  cir- 
cumscribed fields,  can  resist  its  encroaches.     I  have  a  bottom  long 
since  given  up  to  the  Bermuda.     Recently  I  passed  through  it  and 
found  that  the  Lespedeza  had  almost  completely  throttled  it,  though 
like  Mr.  Dickson's  corn,  it  died  game,  as  here  and  there,  peering 
above  its  enemy,  could  be  seen  an  isolated  sprig  of  Bermuda,  which, 


(71  ) 

as  it  cannot  stand  shade,  will  have  to  yield  entirely  before  the  close 
of  another  season.  I  have  but  little  doubt  that  any  pest  like  coco 
or  Bermuda  could  be  rooted  out  by  this  king  grass  in  a  few  years  in 
any  locality,  and  would  recommend  it  to  be  sown  on  such  fields  if 
for  no  other  purpose.  I  intend  to  give  it  a  fair  trial  myself  on  one 
or  two  similar  localities." 

In  like  manner  the  Hon.  H.  W.  Ravenel,  of  South  Carolina,  re- 
gards it  with  great  favor,  and  thinks  its  timely  appearance  will  be 
ultimately  a  source  of  great  wealth  to  the  people  of  the  Southern 
States.  Many  places  that  were  regarded  as  worthless  before  its  ap- 
pearance, are  now  made  profitable  as  a  pasture,  with  the  aid  of  this 
grass. 

Mr.  Samuel  McRamsey,  of  Warren  county,  says  this  clover  made 
its  appearance  in  that  locality  in  1870.  It  is  fast  covering  the 
whole  country.  It  supplies  much  grazing  from  the  first  of  August 
until  frost.  It  is  short  j  but  very  hardy.  Sheep  are  very  fond  of 
it,  and  cattle  will  eat  it.  It  is  killing  out  the  broomsedge  wherever 
it  appears.  It  grows  exceedingly  well  on  red  clay,  and  with  a 
little  care  covers  red  hillsides  that  are  much  too  common  all  over 
the  State.  If  it  will  do  this  and  destroy  the  broom  grass,  it  should 
be  cultivated.  It  is  not  good  for  meadow  and  is  only  valuable  for 
pasture. 

The  Hon.  M.  T.  Polk  considers  it  almost  worthless  for  grazing, 
having  made  many  experiments  with  it.  His  opinion  is  entitled  to 
great  weight. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  MEADOWS, 


CONCERNING   MANURES. 


Meadows  exist  in  various  sections  of  the  State  to  a  limited  extent, 
and'  it  being  the  object  of  this  work  to  foster  this  branch  of  agricul- 
ture the  best  plans  for  encouraging  and  treating  them  will  be  dis- 
cussed. The  subject  requires  no  argument  to  encourage  it,  as  every 
right-thinking  man  will  see  at  a  glance  the  great  importance  of 
growing  more  hay.  It  is,  in  the  observation  of  every  one,  that 
vast  amounts  of  baled  hay  are  brought  by  rail  and  river  from  those 
States  already  embarked  in  the  cultivation  of  grasses.  While  we 
have  the  best  climate  in  the  United  States  for  this  purpose,  as 
already  stated,  we  have  a  soil  unparalleled  for  fertility,  and  well 
suited  to  almost  all  varieties  of  grasses  described,  and,  besides, 
being  on  the  border  of  the  cotton  States,  we  have  a  market  at  our 
doors  for  our  surplus. 

If  we  do  this  our  country  will  assume  such  a  charming  appear- 
ance that  it  will  delight  the  eye  of  every  passenger  who  travels 
through  it  on  the  many  lines  of  railroads,  besides  repaying  the 
owners  all  the  care  bestowed  on  it.  Our  citizens  are  not  so  much 
to  blame  for  this  backwardness  in  the  cultivation  of  the  grasses  as 
would  appear  at  first  sight.  The  routine  established  before  the 
war  was  hard  to  break  up,  but  they  are  looking  around  for  some 
more  profitable  method  of  farming.  To  establish  meadows  is  the 
part  of  wisdom.  Just  how  to  do  this  we  propose  to  tell  here  as 
fully  as  our  space  will  permit.  We  shall  consider: 

1st.  The  preparation  of  meadow  lands. 


(  74  ) 

2nd.  Selection  of  suitable  seeds  for  sowing  and  method  of 
mixing. 

3rd.  Times  of  sowing  and  the  best  methods  of  securing  stands. 

4th.  Cutting,  curing  and  storing  the  hay. 

5th.  Improvement  of  meadows. 

6th.  Manures  and  manner  of  their  application. 

PREPARATION    OF   MEADOW   LANDS. 

This  is  of  the  utmost  importance  when  we  reflect  that  any  want 
of  attention  to  all  the  details  necessary  to  insure  success  involves  a 
considerable  loss,  not  only  in  money  and  labor,  but  also  in  the 
length  of  time  required  to  undo  and  correct  the  error.  God  sows 
the  pastures  to  our  hands,  but  man  must  sow  the  meadows.  A 
man  may  think  he  is  pursuing  the  most  judicious  course  possible, 
but  he  may  be  in  error,  and  an  honest  mistake  does  not  free  the 
farmer  from  loss.  He  must  inform  himself  correctly  on  the  char- 
acter of  the  land  to  be  sown,  and  then,  with  every  facility  at  his 
command,  acquaint  himself  with  the  grasses  best  adapted  to  its 
requirements. 

In  the  first  place,  though  many  varieties  of  grass  will  grow  well 
on  moist  land,  it  is  not  to  be  understood  that  they  will  thrive  best 
on  wet  lauds.  When  the  water  stands  on  the  surface  all  the  year, 
the  character  of  the  hay  is  nearly  worthless,  being  full  of  moisture 
and  with  but  little  nutritive  principles  in  it.  Consequently  it  is 
very  important  to  have  soils  properly  drained,  if  they  require  it. 
It  will  largely  increase  the  quantity  and  greatly  improve  the  quality 
of  the  crop.  With  the  soil  full  of  moisture  it  becomes  sour,  and, 
though  full  of  fertility,  it  is  unavailable  to  the  plant.  With  .wet 
soil,  it  is  impossible  to  put  the  laud  in  a  proper  state  of  tilth.  So 
all  things  p6int  to  the  necessity  of  drainage. 

It  may  be  proper  to  state  that  every  piece  of  ground  on  which 
water  will  stand  two  hours  after  a  rain,  will  be  benefitted  by  a 
system  of  drainage.  This  seems  to  the  Southerner  to  be  such  a 
stupendous  undertaking  that  nearly  every  one  is  discouraged  from 
making  the  effort.  When  it  is  supposed  that  draining  can  only  be 
effected  by  ditching  in  every  direction,  and  laying  great  stretches  of 
pipes,  the  undertaking  does  seem  indeed  to  be  very  costly. 

The  method  of  pipe-laying  is  the  best,  and  as  our  farmers  see 
the  good  effects  of  a  cheaper  method,  they  will  gradually,  and  by 
slow  degrees,  come  to  practice  the  more  substantial  methods.  A 


(  75  ) 

Northern  land  owner  does  not  hesitate  to  spend  fifty  or  seventy-five 
dollars  on  a  single  acre,  when  he  can  bring  into  cultivation  a  choice 
piece  of  bottom.  But  the  Hollanders  surpass  every  other  people 
on  earth  in  this  particular.  Nearly  every  foot  of  land  they  own 
has  been  reclaimed  from  the  sea  by  a  system  of  dykes,  levees  and 
ditches.  Their  lands  being  lower  than  the  water  courses  that  run 
through  them,  their  only  resource  is  to  lift  the  watters  that  are  col- 
lected in  the  ditches  by  means  of  steam  pumps.  This  is  done,  it  is 
true,  at  the  expense  of  the  public,  but  the  farmers  pay  an  annual 
tax  to  keep  it  up,  or  they  would  soon  be  flooded  by  the  accumula- 
ting waters  that  penetrate  the  soil  from  every  side. 

There  are.  many  methods  of  draining  land,  but  we  will  confine 
ourselves  to  the  method  of  doing  it  as  effectually  as  the  Dutch,  but 
at  such  an  expense  that  even  a  renter  can  afford  it,  for  the  increase 
of  one  year's  crop.  A  German  gardner  of  New  York  leased  ten 
acres  of  land  that  proved  to  be  boggy,  and  the  first  three  years  his 
crops,  in  spite  of  all  the  attention  he  could  give  them,  barely  paid 
rent  and  support  him.  He  was  advised  to  try  draining,  and  al- 
though but  seven  years  were  left  of  his  lease,  he  did  it  at  a  cost  of 
$500.  The  result  fully  justified  the  expense,  for  in  the  remaining 
seven  years  he  made,  over  and  above  all  expenses,  money  enough 
to  pay  $12,000  for  the  farm  he  had  drained.  No  land  can  produce 
well  without  the  aid  of  heat  and  proper  aeration.  If  the  soil  is 
full  of  water  it  will  be  impervious  to  the  air,  and  the  water  will 
also  counteract  the  effects  of  the  sun's  rays,  and  the  ground  will  be 
cold  and  lifeless.  Without  the  influence  of  heat  and  air,  necessary 
chemical  changes  in  the  constituents  of  the  soil  cannot  take  place, 
consequently  the  roots  fail  to  find  the  nourishment  they  are  seeking 
—they  fail  to  penetrate  the  soil  to  a  sufficient  depth,  and  instead 
of  a  rich  subsoil,  there  will  only  be  surface  soil  to  support  vegeta- 
tion. That  soon  becomes  exhausted,  and  the  land  appears  worn 
out.  Draining  opens  up  a  mine  of  fertilizers  below,  the  roots  run 
quickly  down  to  it,  and  there  is  no  question  that  the  crops  are 
greatly  increased.  There  is  much  land  in  our  State  that  would  be 
greatly  improved  by  draining.  The  soils  that  will  be  improved 
can  be  ascertained,  during  the  wet  season,  by  digging  a  hole  in  the 
fields  and  watching  the  height  to  which  the  water  rises.  In  many 
places  it  will  remain  almost  on  a  level  nearly  all  winter ;  in  others 
showing  itself  one,  two  or  three  feet  below  it.  And  this,  too,  on 


C  76  ) 

rolling  lands  that  are  supposed  to  be  dry  enough.  Not  only  are 
the  wet  lands  made  dryer,  but  the  dry  lands  made  wetter.  This  is 
effected  by  the  soil  becoming  porous,  so  as  to  better  admit  the  mois- 
ture of  rains  and  dews.  It  is  made  warmer,  and  consequently 
frosts  will  have  less  effect,  there  being  less  moisture  to  freeze  on 
the  surface.  And  besides,  by  being  warmer  the  crops  come  on 
earlier. 

Our  northern  farmers  practice  almost  exclusively  tile  draining. 
This  is  a  costly  mode,  and  if  it  were  the  only  way  our  farmers 
would  be  frightened  at  once  from  the  effort.  But  so  thoroughly  is 
this  plan  practiced,  that  it  is  no  longer  an  experiment.  Some  coun- 
ties in  Ohio  have  spent  the  public  funds  in  digging  and  draining 
the  mains,  so  that  farmers  can  lay  their  drains  into  them.  Wood 
Bounty,  Ohio,  in  1867,  spent  in  one  year  $500,000  in  digging  mains. 
One  drain  was  dng  thirty  miles  long,  and  six  feet  deep,  while  the 
districts  dug  four  hundred  miles  more. 

The  Agricultural  College  of  Michigan,  appointed  a  committee 
to  investigate  the  effects  of  draining.  They  bought  twenty- five 
acres  of  swampy  land,  covered  with  bog- grass,  rushes,  flags  and 
other  worthless  vegetation.  They  laid  about  800  yards  of  tiles  at 
an  expense  of  $480,  and  sowed  it  in  grass.  At  the  first  cutting  the 
crop  was  sold  for  $1,570,  leaving  a  clear  profit  the  first  year,  over 
all  expenses,  of  $548.70,  and  the  second  year  they  cleared  $975. 
This  was  on  land  that  before  draining,  produced  absolutely 
nothing. 

But  a  drain  can  be  made  in  a  much  cheaper  manner  than  by 
tiles.  Should  there  be  plenty  of  surface  rock  near,  lay  one  on  the 
bottom  of  the  ditch,  one  on  each  side  of  the  bottom  rock,  and  cover 
with  a  fourth.  Or,  instead  of  using  four  rocks,  a  very  good  ditch 
can  be  made  by  tilting  two  flat  rocks  to  each  other  so  that  a  trans- 
verse section  will  form  a  A  shaped  tunnel,  and  if  there  is  a  firm 
bed  to  the  ditch  it  will  last  an  indefinite  length  of  time,  the  water 
carrying  off  the  loose  crumbs  of  clay. 

Still  another  plan  is  to  use,  instead  of  the  rocks,  poles  of  any 
kind  of  wood,  so  they  are  straight.  Lay  two  poles,  say  four  or 
five  inches  in  diameter,  parallel  to  each  other,  leaving  a  space  of 
six  inches  between  them,  and  then  lay  another  pole  on  the  centre 
space  so  that  the  edges  will  rest  on  the  other  two,  leaving  an  open 
space  five  or  six  inches  in  diameter.  Then  throw  stubble,  straw, 


(77  ) 

weeds,  leaves  or  cornstalks  over  the  poles,  and  indeed  over  the 
rocks  also,  and  there  will  be  a  good  ditch  without  the  outlay  of 
any  money.  Of  course  the  loose  dirt  will  be  thrown  over  either 
the  rocks  or  logs.  Timber  under  ground  in  this  way  will  last  a 
long  time. 

But  there  is  still  another  plan,  in  case  the  soil  has  any  descent, 
and  there  are  few  lauds  in  Tennessee  without  it,  and  that  is  by 
means  of  a  subsoil  plow.  Let  a  stout  subsoil  plow  follow  in  the 
furrow  of  a  turning  plow,  both  drawn  by  stout  teams,  and  send  the 
subsoiler  at  least  two  feet  deep.  Let  the  furrows  run  up  and  down 
the  hill  so  as  to  give  a  regular  descent  to  the  water,  and  the  hard 
pan  broken  up  by  the  subsoil  will  carry  off  all  superfluous  water 
after  rains  in  a  very  short  time.  This  process  is  so  effective  that  it 
is  pursued  in  some  sections  to  the  exclusion,  entirely,  of  regular  ' 
draining.  It  will  have  to  be  repeated  at  intervals  of  three  or  four 
years,  and  there  will  be  but  little  disturbance  to  the  sod,  as  the  sub- 
soiler has  only  an  iron  bar  for  a  helve,  which  raises  the  surface  so 
slightly  it  can  easily  be  pressed  back  with  a  roller. 

From  all  the  testimony  to  be  gathered  on  this  subject,  it  is  pretty 
apparent  that  the  cost  of  draining  a  meadow  will  be  paid  the  first 
year  by  the  increased  production  of  the  crop.  The  after-crops  will 
be  profits  to  the  farmer. 

After  what  has  been  said  in  regard  to  almost  every  kind  of  grass, 
it  is  almost  needless  to  impress  on  the  mind  of  the  farmer  the  neces- 
sity of  thoroughly  pulverizing  the  soil.  Let  it  be  well  and  deeply 
broken  up,  and  then  with  the  harrow,  drag  and  roller  continue  to 
work  it  until  it  is  smooth  and  not  a  .clod  appears  on  the  surface. 
The  roots  of  grasses  are  exceedingly  delicate  and  cannot  penetrate 
the  hard,  dry  lumps  of  soil,  but  will  exhaust  their  energies  in  going 
around  or  under  them.  Besides,  in  exactly  the  same  proportion  as 
the  clods  exist,  are  the  nourishing  elements  locked  up  from  the  use 
of  the  grass.  Another  reason  :  When  clods  exist  in  great  numbers,, 
the  ground  will  be  rough  and  the  seed  will  not  get  into  the  soil,  or 
will  get  in  too  deep  to  germinate.  Thus  seeds  are  lost  and  the 
stand  impaired. 

It  is  needless  to  say  the  soil  must  be  fertile,  for  nothing  will 
thrive  well  on  poor  soil.  If  it  is  not  rich  it  must  be  made  so. 
Should  it  be  desired  to  sow  a  field  that  has  been  greatly  exhausted, 
a  plan  pursued  in  England  is  commended.  The  fall  previous  to 


(78) 

sowing,  the  field  is  put  in  turnips.  During  the  winter,  by  means  of 
hurdles,  a  flock  of  sheep  is  confined  to  a  portion  of  the  field,  and 
they  are  not  allowed  to  leave  until  every  vestige  of  the  turnips  is 
exhausted.  By  this  time  the  ground  will  be  black  with  their  drop- 
pings. In  this  manner  the  whole  field,  acre  by  acre,  is  gone  over, 
and  the  ground  has  a  fine  covering  of  manure.  We  will  suppose 
this  consumes  the  winter.  In  the  spring  break  up,  or  to  break  up 
just  as  soon  as  the  sheep  are  removed  is  better,  and  sow  with  peas. 
When  this  crop  is  in  full  bearing  let  on  both  hogs  and  sheep,  and 
it  will  amply  repay  all  its  preparation  by  the  manner  in  which  the 
stock  will  thrive,  and  they  will  again  bestow  on  it  a  covering  of 
fine  manure.  Now  the  ground  is  well  manured  and  fully  capable 
of  giving,  in  return  for  the  care  bestowed,  a  bountiful  crop  the  first 
year.  Of  course  it  must  be  again  broken  and  pulverized  as  before 
mentioned.  This  not  only  pays  better  than  letting  it  lie  in  fallow, 
but  it  keeps  down  weeds.  When  ground  is  fallosved,  there  will  be 
generally  an  interval  of  neglect,  and  the  weeds,  ever  watchful  for  a 
chance,  will  spring  up,  mature  their  seeds  and  sow  them,  to  the 
trouble  and  vexation  of  the  farmer  afterward. 

SELECTION    OF    SUITABLE    SEEDS   AND   BEST    METHOD    OF    MIXING 
THEM. 

Whatever  the  character  of  the  soil  to  be  converted  into  a  meadow, 
a  suitable  grass  will  be  found  in  our  list.  There  are  grasses  for 
rocky  land,  sandy  land,  bottom  land,  upland,  or  calcareous  land, 
and  we  cannot  do  better  than  to  refer  the  reader  to  the  large  list 
from  which  to  select,  as  the  kind  of  land  to  which  they  are  adapted 
is  clearly  shown  in  each  descriptive  article. 

It  is  well  known  to  every  farmer  that  some  grasses  will  not 
thrive  on  certain  characters  of  soil.  What  grasses  to  sow  must  be 
left  to  the  judgment  of  the  farmer,  as  only  an  extended  experience 
will  be  able  to  show  under  every  circumstance  the  peculiarities  of 
the  land  to  be  sown.  Under  certain  conditions,  too,  it  may  be  pref- 
£rable  to  put  the  land  down  in  clover,  whatever  kind  of  soil  it  may 
be;  especially  is  this  the  case  where  the  land,  from  long  cultivation, 
is  not  in  good  heart.  It  must  be  remembered  that,  if  a  field  has, 
by  long  continued  cultivation,  without  rotation,  been  so  reduced  in 
fertility  that  it  will  not  produce  remunerative  crops,  it  will  not  pro- 
duce any  kind  of  grass  in  paying  quantities,  until  some  of  its  vital^ 


(79) 

ity  has  been  restored.  If  a  farmer  fattens  stock  from  the  produce 
of  his  own  farm,  it  follows  that  whatever  goes  to  produce  bone, 
muscle  and  blood,  is  so  much  substance  taken  from  the  soil,  and 
restitution  is  demanded. 

When  the  earth  is  covered  with  grasses,  and  they  are  plowed 
under,  and  converted  into  vegetable  mould,  not  only  docs  the  land 
receive  what  has  been  taken  from  it,  but  there  is  added  a  vast 
amount  of  substances  extracted  from  the  atmosphere,  such  as  car- 
bon, ammonia,  nitrogen  and  oxygen,  and  in  that  way  the  land  is 
constantly  improved.  It  is  in  this  way  that  nature  renews  herself, 
and  a  piece  of  land  left  to  her  care,  will,  after  the  lapse  of  a  few 
years,  regain  its  fertility.  But  the  necessities  of  man  are  such  he 
cannot  await  this  slow  process,  and  therefore,  it  is  that  he  must, 
to  bring  about  the  same  result  sooner,  resort  to  the  expedient  of 
plowing  in  green  crops.  Various  kinds  of  green  manuring  crops 
are  used  for  this  purpose.  In  the  selection  of  a  crop  to  plow 
under,  one  thing  should  be  kept  prominently  in  view,  and  that  is, 
select  such  crops  as  derive  their  nourishment  in  great  part  from  the 
air.  It  has  been  demonstrated  by  many  experiments  that  the 
legumins  do  this  more  effectually  than  any  other  class.  Among 
these  none  are  so  effectual  as  the  different  kinds  of  clover.  They 
not  only  enrich  the  land  by  the  great  mass  of  foliage  and  stems,  but 
also,  by  their  mechanical  displacement  of  the  sail,  loosen  and  pul- 
verize it.  Next  to  the  clovers  are  peas.  They,  it  is  true,  do  not 
have  the  same  extensive  system  of  roots,  but,  if  possible,  they  grow 
and  exist  more  from  atmospheric  influences  than  any  other  plant. 

After  the  selection  of  the  kinds  of  grass  to  be  sown,  the  next  con- 
sideration is  to  select  good  seed.  How  often  has  it  occurred  to 
every  farmer  to  see  the  result  of  all  his  toil  and  expense  culminate 
in  failure  for  want  of  good  seed  !  It  does  not  always  occur  to  the 
sower  that  his  seeds  are  defective  through  age,  or  through  mixing 
noxious  seeds  with  the  grass  seeds.  The  high  price  that  seeds  com- 
mand is  a  great  temptation  to  the  dishonest  dealer.  Sometimes  it 
happens  that  good  seeds  are  kept  until  they  have  lost  their  power 
of  germinating.  It  is  better  to  save  seed  from  the  farm  if  possible. 
It  involves  but  little  care  to  do  so,  and  is  an  actual  saving  to  the 
farmer,  and  then  he  knows  what  he  is  sowing.  Should  it  be  neces- 
sary, however,  to  buy  seeds,  always  delay  a  few  days  to  test  them. 
This  is  easily  done  by  placing  a  certain  ascertained  number  on  a 


(80) 

wet  cloth  folded  several  times  to  retain  moisture,  and  covering 
them  over  with  a  single  thickness  of  the  same.  Keep  the  cloth 
damp  a  few  days  and  the  good  ones  will  swell  up  and  sprout,  while 
the  defective  ones  will  be  covered  over  with  mould.  Count  the 
sprouts,  and,  by  an  easy  computation,  one  can  then  ascertain  the 
proportion  of  good  seeds.  Then  sow  in  the  proportion  and  there 
will  be  no  difficulty  in  securing  a  stand.  The  wisdom  of  this  pre- 
caution may  be  known  when  it  is  stated  that  nearly  all  the  gras& 
seeds  are  worthless  at  the  end  of  three  years,  only  a  small  propor- 
tion of  them  germinating.  Even  clover  seeds,  that  will  keep  their 
vitality  when  in  the  ground  and  covered  up,  will  lose  this  vitality 
in  four  or  five  years,  if  exposed  to  the  atmosphere.  The  millets  are 
scarcely  worth  sowing  after  the  second  year. 

No  pasture,  however  luxuriant,  is  found  to  consist  of  one  grass 
alone.  In  all  meadows  sown  alone,  there  will  be  found  naked 
spots,  and  these  seem  to  depend  upon  some  incompatibility  of  the 
soil,  at  that  point,  with  the  grass  sown.  These  spots  would  be  oc- 
cupied possibly  by  other  species  if  sown,  and  thus  the  whole  surface 
would  be  covered.  Some  grasses  are  disposed  to  turf  the  ground, 
while  others  form  tussocks,  therefore  it  is  best  to  mix,  if  sowing  a 
tussock  grass,  a  grass  that  will  turf  well.  Some  grasses  have  a 
heavy  undergrowth  of  surface  foliage,  while  others  have  this 
sparingly.  These  two  peculiarities  would  be  done  away  with  if  the 
two  were  combined. 

It  is  not,  however,  proper  to  combine  the  pasture  grasses  with 
the  meadow  grasses.  As  a  rule  the  former  have  creeping  roots  and 
are  more  vigorous  than  the  latter,  and  they  would  soon  overpower 
them  and  destroy  the  meadow.  This,  of  course,  is  spoken  in  refer- 
ence to  the  perennial  pasture  grasses. 

Another  condition  of  mixing  the  number  to  be  combined.  As  a 
rule,  it  is  beyond  question  that  a  meadow  sown  with  a  variety  of 
seeds  will  do  better  and  make  more  hay  than  when  one  kind  is 
used.  It  is  no  easy  matter  to  explain  why,  but  nature  does  it,  and 
she  rarely  errs  in  her  primitive  growth. 

A  custom  prevails  among  the  grass  farmers  of  the  North  and  Eastta 
mix  a  great  number  together— some  having  as  many  as  a  dozen  differ- 
ent kinds  on  one  meadow.  In  this  way  those  vacant  spots  we  have 
spoken  of  will  be  filled  up  with  selected  seeds  instead  of  seeds  of  an  in- 
ferior or  noxious  sort.  The  ground  will  be  covered,  and  it  is  better  to 


(81  ) 

select  the  best  varieties.  The  more  especially  is  this  the  case  when  it 
is  expected,  as  most  farmers  will  do,  to  pasture  to  some  extent  the 
meadow,  or  when  it  is  wished  to  train  it  as  a  meadow  a  few  years 
and  ultimately  let  it  pass  into  a  grazing  lot.  It  is  quite  a  common 
custom  in  this  State  to  mix  clover  and  orchard  grass,  or  clover  and 
Herd's  grass,  or  clover  and  timothy,  and  sometimes  timothy  and 
Herd's  grass  are  mixed,  and  this  is  about  the  extent  of  mixing  done. 
In  the  great  meadows  of  the  Northwestern  and  New  England 
States  where  grass  culture  has  been  practiced  for  years,  it  has  been 
demonstrated  often  that  the  admixture  of  several  varieties  increase* 
many  fold  the  yield  of  grass,  even  if  not  wanted  for  pasturage.  It 
secures  an  early  stand,  and  if  the  ground  fails  to  suit  one  specie.", 
another  will  flourish,  and  thus  all  vacant  spots  are  covered.  These 
spots  of  even  an  inch  or  two  may  s<>em  insignificant,  but  when  they 
are  multiplied  all  over  a  large  field  they  will  materially  affect  the 
yield.  The  crop  is  made  up  of  single  stalks,  and  every  stem  is  of 
importance  in  the  aggregation. 

It  should  be  kept  in  mind  in'  the  selection  of  seeds  to  put  those 
together  that  will  blossom  at  the  same-  time,  unless  it  is  intended 
for  a  pasture,  in  which  case  the  reverse  should  be  considered,  for 
then  it  is  best  to  so  arrange  it  as  to  have  a  succession  of  ripening 
crops,  and  the  stock  can  be  supplied  throughout  the  year  with  such 
grasses  as  will  be  young,  tender  and  succulent. 

Some  require  or  are  improved  by  the  tramping  of  stock.  If  left 
to  themselves  they  have  a  tendency  to  tuft  or  spring  out  of  the  soil 
until  their  roots  are  exposed,  when  they  fall  a  prey  to  the  sun  or  to 
the  freezes.  These  tufts  or  tussocks,  as  they  are  also  called,  will 
leave  at  least  half  the  ground  bare,  and  thus,  also,  much  of  the  hay 
is  lost.  But  if  tramped  by  stock,  the  grass  is  pressed  back  into 
the  soil  and  a  turf  is  kept  up  that  covers  the  whole  surface. 

Some  of  the  grasses,  however,  as  timothy,  do  r  ot  require  and 
will  not  bear  grazing  for  various  reasons.  These  grasses  ought  not 
to  be  mixed  with  those  that  are  benefitted  by  timothy,  and  should 
such  be  disposed  to  tuft,  the  use  of  a  heavy  roller  is  the  only  remedy 
and  the  vacant  spaces  can  easily  be  reset  by  sowing  seeds  of  the 
same  or  other  varieties  on  them,  and  then  giving  them  a  light  coat 
of  manure. 

It  may  be  assumed  that  in  nearly  all  meadows  or  pastures  clover 
should  be  a  constituent.     It  is  an  easy   matter  to  secure  a  stand  of 
6 


(82) 

it.  The  clover  will,  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  years,  disappear 
from  the  meadow,  leaving  the  grass  in  possession  of  the  ground. 
But  it  has  not  left  without  a  blessing,  for  it  has  reached  up  into  the 
air  with  its  long  arms  and  drawn  down  great  stores  of  ammonia, 
nitrogen,  carbonic  acid  and  other  valuable  elements  that  grass  re- 
quires, and  has  pushed  them  down  into  the  soil  ;  while  on  the  other 
hand  it  has  pumped  up  immense  quantities  of  potash  and  other  salts 
that  are,  in  their  natural  state,  insoluble,  and  not  available  to  the 
grasses,  and  when  it  dies  it  bequeaths  these  valuable  manures  to  its 
successors.  Nor  is  this  all.  Its  long  roots  permeat  the  ground  to 
a  prodigious  depth  for  so  humble  a  plant,  and  when  the  roots  decay 
the  soil  is  so  honey-corned  that  rains  penetrate  to  the  subsoil  easily, 
and  the  grass  roots  follow  to  a  much  greater  depth  than  they  could 
otherwise  attain.  And  while  all  these  services  are  b'eiug  rendered, 
the  clover  is  giving  to  its  owner  large  yields  of  the  best  of  hay. 

Such  a  mixture  should  be  made  in  the  sowings  as  if  one  species 
failed  another  will  take  hold.  Nor  is  it  proper  to  sow  the  same 
quantities  on  the  different  soils  of  the  State.  On  rich  bottoms 
there  will  be  a  necessity  for  using  a  free  hand,  while  on  the  sandy 
uplands  we  must  withhold  the  quantity.  It  may  be  wished  to  pas- 
ture alternate  years,  or  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  years  altogether. 
All  these  reasons  will  modify  the  quantity  of  seed  to  be  sown.  If 
a  very  early  crop  is  wanted,  such  should  be  selected  as  come  in 
«arly,  or  if  a  succession  of  crops  be  desired,  it  will  be  an  easy  mat- 
ter to  take  from  our  list  those  that  will  ripen,  or  rather  blossom  one 
after  another  to  the  latest,  thus  enabling  the  farmer  to  save  all  his 
hay  in  good  time.  This  custom  prevails  to  some  extent  in  Ireland, 
to  sow  the  same  quantity  of  seed  to  an  acre  of  each  kind  as  though 
no  other  sorts  were  to  be  sown,  and  enough  of  each  kind  to  fully 
seed  the  land. 

On  a  visit  to  the  Unaka  Mountains,  last  September,  in  company 
with  some  members  of  the  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science,  we  saw  some  grasses  growing  in  great  luxuriance  on  the 
"  Balds"  of  that  range,  and  on  the  top  of  the  Roan  Mountain  that 
we  had  never  seen  elsewhere,  but  Prof.  Chickering,  of  Washington 
Oity,  recognized  them  as  similar  to  those  seen  on  Mt.  Washington 
and  in  Canada.  There  were  poa  annua,  the  spear  grass  of  Maine, 
but  common  on  low  lands  in  the  State  ;  agrostis  perennans,  or  thin 
grass,  a  plant  peculiar  to  marshy  places;  phleum  alpinum,  carex 


(  83) 

juncea,  a  rush  looking  sedge,  or  rather  a  grass- like  sedge;  aira 
flexuvsa,  or  wood  hair  grass,  an  ornamental  grass  of  the  Northern 
latitudes;  danthonia  compressa,  or  wild  oat  grass,  and  trisetum 
wolle,  or  downy  persoon.  Besides  these  were  many  others  not  de- 
termined by  any  of  the  botanists  in  the  company.  These  grasses 
afford  an  immense  pasturage  during  the  summer  to  vast  herds  of 
cattle  that  are  driven  by  the  citizens  for  miles  around  to  summer 
on  them.  Gen.  Wilder,  who  owns  a  large  section  of  land  there, 
informed  us  the  grass,  when  enclosed  from  the  stock,  grew  to  the 
height  of  four  feet.  Very  many  varieties  existed,  all  growing 
promiscuously  together.  This  goes  far  to  show  the  great  difference 
of  the  development  of  the  species  in  different  localities,  for  at  lower 
altitudes,  with  the  exception  of  the  carex  juncea,  these  grasses  grow 
quite  low. 

TIMES   AND   MANNER   OF   SOWING. 

Up  to  1810  the  almost  invariable  rule  among  all  farmers  was  to 
sow  grass  seeds  in  the  spring  of  the  year  on  crops  of  grain.  Since 
that  time  the  practice  has  changed  to  a  great  extent,  and  while 
some  still  adhere  to  spring  sowing,  the  great  majority  of  farmers 
sow  in  the  early  fall.  Some  few  sow  grass  alone,  but  the  most  of 
them  sow  with  some  kind  of  grain.  The  former  is  most  decidedly 
the  best,  and  should  in  every  possible  case  be  practiced.  There  are 
many  who  contend  it  is  much  better  to  sow  alone,  as  the  half  crop 
that  will  be  harvested  the  next  year  is  fully  equivalent  to  the  value 
of  the  grain  crop,  while  if  the  two  are  sown  together,  they  both 
work  injuriously  on  each  other.  The  stand  of  grass  is  injured,  and 
the  yield  of  grain  is  diminished.  With  all  that,  the  general  cus- 
tom is  to  sow  on  grain  fields,  and  wait  until  the  second  year  for  hay. 
But  one  thing  is  very  essential,  let  it  be  sown  with  whatever  it  may, 
it  must  be  in  the  ground  long  enough  before  frosts  to  take  a  deep 
root,  or  much  of  it  will  be  destroyed  by  cold.  Clover  must,  how- 
ever, in  either  case,  be  reserved  until  spring,  as,  when  young,  it  is 
very  sensitive  to  the  effects  of  cold  unless  it  is  sown  in  August.  It 
is  the  custom  of  some  farmers  to  sow  clover  and  other  grass  seeds 
mixed,  in  the  last  plowing  of  late  corn.  Should  that  course  be  de- 
cided on,  the  corn  must  be  late,  and  plowed  on  the  level  principle, 
and  the  clover  sown  after  the  last  plowing.  Some  crops  have  suc- 
ceeded admirably  put  in  on  this  plan.  But  the  better  plan  will  be 


(84) 

to  prepare  the  ground  well,  as  already  stated,  and  sow  the  seed,  if 
alone,  from  the  15th  of  September  to  the  15th  of  October ;  if  with 
a  grain  crop,  as  soon  as  it  can  be  put  in  safely.  Wheat  is  sown,  as 
Exgeneral  practice,  too  late  to  insure  a  stand  of  grass  that  will  resist 
the  winter,  and  it  is,  therefore,  better  to  sow  rye  or  barley.  Let 
the  time  of  sowing  be  when  it  may,  the  farmer  must  watch  for  a 
season,  otherwise  the  moisture  brought  up  by  plowing  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  germinate  the  seeds,  but  not  to  make  them  live,  and  even 
if  the  moisture  is  not  enough  to  make  them  germinate,  there  may 
be  enough  to  sprout  them,  and  they  will  still  be  destroyed. 

If  it  is  the  intention  to  sow  on  a  stubble,  it  is  better,  as  soon  as 
possible  after  harvest,  to  prepare  the  land  and  sow  in  some  of  the 
August  seasons,  and  if  sown  then,  the  clover  sowing  may  not  be 
deferred,  but  sown  with  the  other  seeds,  as  they  will  have  ample 
time  then  to  root  enough  to  withstand  the  cold  of  winter.  Timothy 
or  Herd's  gras  sown  in  September  or  October  alone,  will  always 
make  a  good  crop  the  next  summer. 

As  compared  with  spring  sowing,  we  may  safely  prefer  fall.  Both 
heat  and  cold  are  injurious  to  young  grass  plants,  but  of  the  two, 
cold  is  much  less  injurious  than  the  droughts  of  summer.  It  was 
the  experience  of  the  writer,  on  one  occasion,  to  sow  a  large 
meadow.  He  began  about  the  1st  of  September  and  sowed  on 
until  rains  stopped  him,  and  again  in  the  middle  of  October,  and 
finished  early  in  March.  On  the  September  sowing  there  was  a 
magnificent  stand  that  stood  over  the  ground  with  a  solid  turf.  On 
the  October  crop  the  stand  was  fair,  but  much  was  destroyed  during 
the  winter,  and  the  weeds  were  very  troublesome  the  next  year. 
On  the  March  sowing  the  stand  promised  as  well  as  the  September 
crop,  but  the  droughts  of  summer  destroyed  it  completely. 

But  there  will  always  be  a  difference  of  opinion  on  this  subject, 
and  this  difference  mainly  arises  from  the  difference  in  the  character 
of  soils.  Some  soils  are  better  sown  in  the  spring,  while  others 
secure  better  results  by  fall  sowing — and  in  either  case  the  success- 
ful farmer  will  advocate  his  plan.  But  in  either  case,  as  Gen.  Hard- 
ing truthfully  says,  a  man  will  fail  sometimes,  let  him  sow  as  he 
will. 

A  few  words  are  only  necessary  in  regard  to  the  manner  of  sow- 
ing. In  the  first  place,  the  ground  should  be  thoroughly  prepared, 
and  a  season  on  hand,  and  if  rain  has  fallen  since  the  ground  was 


(  85) 

put  in  order  and  packed  the  surface,  run  a  sharp  toothed  harrow 
over  it  to  break  up  the  crust,  then  sow  the  seed  and  roll  it  in.  A 
light  harrowing  will  also  do  on  clayey  soils.  If  its  surface  is  too 
rocky,  stumpy  or  sloping,  to  admit  a  roller,  the  next  best  thing  is 
to  brush  it  with  a  light  full  brush.  If  the  surface  is  perfectly 
smooth  before  the  seeds  are  sown  a  light  brushing  does  very  well, 
but  if  it  is  not,  a  roller  is  preferable,  as  it  will  not  cover  so  deeply 
as  a  brush.  Remember  that  all  seeds  covered  two  inches  deep  will 
not  germinate.  If  sown  with  grain,  smooth  the  ground  over  with 
a  brush  after  the  grain  is  sown,  and  let  a  hand  follow  immediately 
behind  and  cast  the  seed  into  the  brush.  Never  use  a  heavy  thin 
brush,  but  if  the  limbs  are  full  of  twigs  it  will  not  matter  as  to 
weight.  Then  it  will  not  cover  too  deeply. 

It  may  be  necessary,  and  generally  is,  to  roll  the  land  in  the 
spring,  especially  if  the  meadow  is  a  stiff  clay  soil,  as  the  frosts  of 
winter  will  usually  heave  up  most  of  the  soil,  thereby  carrying  up 
roots  and  earth,  and  unless  it  is  packed  in  again  the  succeeding 
droughts  will  surely  destroy  the  grass.  All  these  directions  are  not 
to  be  taken  as  applying  to  every  locality,  or  situation,  for  as  differ- 
ence of  soil  and  climate  affects  the  results,  so  only  can  experience, 
controlled  by  reason,  govern  the  complete  details  of  this,  or  any 
other  species  of  planting. 

CUTTING,   CURING   AND   STORING   HAY. 

There  has  been,  and  still  is  more  differences  of  opinion  among 
hay  farmers,  as  to  the  proper  time  of  cutting,  than  upon  any  other 
point  connected  with  hay.  There  are  different  times  for  the  differ- 
ent varieties,  but  as  a  rule  there  should  be  but  one  way.  The  time 
of  flowering  is,  unquestionably,  the  general  indication  for  the  har- 
vest to  begin.  At  this  time  the  saccharine  juices  that  go  to  the 
formation  and  development  of  the  seed,  are  stored  in  the  stalk  and 
leaves,  and  if  saved  then,  they  will  lose  only  their  watery  constitu- 
ents, and  the  grass  will  be  as  palatable  and  succulent  as  when 
standing,  and  will  be  eaten  clean  by  all  kinds  of  stock. 

Still,  some  wait  until  the  pollen  falls  and  the  seeds  are  in  the 
milk,  and  those  practicing  this  plan  contend  that  the  hay  will  not 
scour  the  horses  so  badly.  But  there  is  another  reason  why  some 
defer  the  cutting  to  so  late  a  date,  and  that  is,  it  will  not  lose  so 
much  water,  and  consequently  will  be  heavier  and  so  bring  more 
money. 


(  86) 

A  good  authority  eays:  "I  cut  in  the  blossom  when  the  hay  is 
designed  for  milch  cows,  or  for  fattening  beeves,  because  in  that 
state  it  makes  more  beef,  and  induces  the  cows  to  give  more  milk ; 
but  if  for  work  stock,  horses  or  oxen,  I  cut  six  days  later,  or  there- 
abouts, because  it  does  not  scour  or  loosen  the  animal  so  much  as 
when  cut  in  the  blossom."  In  either  case,  however,  in  an  exten- 
sive crop,  if  the  harvesting  begins  at  the  blossoming  period,  it  will 
be  six  days  before  it  is  finished. 

The  gama  grass  and  possibly  the  lucerne  should  be  cut  as  often 
as  it  is  high  enough  to  run  the  mower  through  them,  as  they  be- 
come very  hard,  stiff  and  woody  if  they  grow  too  rank,  whereas, 
they  are,  if  cut  in  time,  very  sweet  and  nutritious. 

There  is  also  much  difference  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  proper 
time  for  cutting  clover.  Some  will  take  a  stalk  and  tie  a  knot  in 
it,  and  if  much  sap  exudes  from  it,  they  will  leave  it  until  it  will 
barely  show  moisture.  Others  will  cut  when  the  field  is  about  half 
in  blossom,  while  still  others  will  defer  it  until  about  half  the  heads 
are  brown  and  the  seed  are  in  a  milky  state.  But  the  mass  of  tes- 
timony is  in  favor  of  cutting  clover  when  a  few  brown  heads  show 
themselves  over  the  field. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  just  before  the  formation  of  the  seed 
there  is  a  large  per  cent  of  sugar,  starch  and  gluten  in  the  stalk 
than  at  any  other  time.  When  the  grass  first  springs  up  it  is  filled 
almost  entirely  with  water,  as  any  one  can  satisfy  himself  by  chew- 
ing a  stem  in  its  different  periods  of  growth.  As  the  plant  grows 
and  matures,  the  water  gradually  becomes  impregnated  with  these 
substances,  and  at  its  blossoming  period  these  elements  exist  in 
their  greatest  quantity — in  fact,  nature  is  now  storing  up  material 
from  which  to  form  the  seed,  and  these  stores  are  held  ready  in  the 
stalk,  to  effect  that  purpose.  These  elements  are  all  soluble  in 
water,  and  consequently,  are  easily  dissolved  by  the  juices  of  the 
stomach.  But  if  these  principles  are  allowed  to  go  to  seed,  they 
leave  the  stalk,  and  at  once  the  plant  starts  on  its  downward  course, 
becoming  more  and  more  woody,  until  finally  decay  sets  in,  and 
the  hay  is  then  worthless  ;  because  the  woody  fibre  is  insoluble  in 
the  stomach. 

Prof.  Kirkland  draws  the  following  conclusions  from  many  careful 
observations  as  regards  timothy  : 


(  87  ) 

1.  "  That  timothy  is  a  perennial  plant,  which  renews  itself  by 
an  annual  formation  of  bulbs,"  or  'perhaps,  more  correctly  speak- 
ing, tubers,  in  which    the  vitality  of  the  plant  is  concentrated  dur- 
ing the  winter.      These    form   in  whatever   locality   the   plant  is 
selected,  without  reference  to  dryness  or    moisture.      From  these 
proceed  the  stalks  that  support  the  heads  and  leaves,  and  from  the 
same  source  spread  out  the  numerous  fibres  forming  the  true  roots. 

2.  "  To  insure  a  perfect  development  of  tubers  a  certain  amount 
of  nutrition  must  be  assimilated  in  the  leaves  and  returned   to  the 
base  of  the  plant,  through  the  stalk. 

3.  "  As  soon  as  the  process  of  nutrition  is  completed,  it  becomes 
manifest  by  a  state  of  desiccation   or  dryness,  always  commencing 
at  a  point  directly  above  either  the  first  or  second  joint  of  the  stem 
near  the  crown   of  the  tubers.     From  this  point  the  desiccation 
gradually   progresses  upward,  and    the  last   portion  of   the  stalk 
yielding  its  freshness  is  that  adjoining  the  head.     Coincident  with 
the  beginning  of  this  process,  is  the  full  development  of  the  seeds, 
and  with  its  progress  they  mature.     Its  earliest  appearance  is  evi- 
dence that  both   the  tubers  and  seeds  have  received  their  requisite 
supplies  of  nutrition,  and  that  neither  the  stalk  nor  the  leaves  are 
longer  necessary  to  aid  them  in   completing  their  maturity.      A 
similar  process  occurs  in  the  onion  just  above    the  bulb,  indicating 
a  maturity  of  that  organ. 

4.  "  If  the  stalk  be  cut  from  the  tubers  before  this  evidence  of 
maturity  appears,  the  necessary  supplies  of  nutrition   will   be  ar- 
rested, their  proper  growth  will  cease,  and   an  effort  will  be  made 
to  repair  the  injury  by  sending  out  small  lateral  tubers,  from  which 
weak,  unhealthy  stalks  will  proceed  at  the  expense  of  the  original 
tubers.     All  will  ultimately  perish,  either  by  the  drought  of  autumn 
or  the  cold  of  winter. 

5.  "The  tubers,  together  with  one  or  two  of  the  lower  joints  of 
the  stalk,  remain  fresh  and  green  during  the  winter,  if  left  to  take 
their  natural  course ;  but  if,  by  any  means,  this  green  portion  be 
severed,  at  any  season  of  the  year,  the  result  is  the  death  of  the 
plant.'5 

From  these  five  propositions  the  following  conclusions  are 
drawn  : 

1.  "  The  timothy  grass  cannot,  under  any  circumstances,  be 
adapted  for  pasture,  as  the  close  nipping  of  horses  and  sheep  is 


fatal  to  the  tubers,  which  are  also  extensively  destroyed  by  swine, 
if  allowed  to  run  in  the  pasture. 

2.  "  That  the  proper  time  for  mowing  timothy  is  at  any  time 
after  the  process  of  desiccation   has  commenced  on  the  stalk,  at 
noted  in  the  third  proposition.     It  is  not  very  essential  whether  it 
is  performed  a  week  earlier  or  later,  provided  it  be  postponed  till 
that  evidence  of  maturity  has  become  manifested. 

3.  "  All  attempts  at  close  shaving  the  sward  should  be  avoided 
while  using  the  scythe,  and  in  gauging  the  mowing  machines,  care 
should  be  taken  to  run  them  so  high  that  they  will  not  cut  th« 
timothy  below  the  second  joint  above  the  tuber." 

CUTTING. 

Perhaps  no  invention  of  agricultural  machinery — and  their  name 
is  legion — has  afforded  more  positive  benefit  to  the  farmer  than  the 
introduction  of  the  mowing  machine.  Before  its  invention  no 
farmer  could,  with  certainty  and  success,  secure  a  large  amount  of 
hay.  It  ripens  in  the  hottest  of  the  weather,  and  at  a  time  when 
the  labor  of  the  country  is,  as  a  general  thing,  all  actively  employ- 
ed ;  so  if  a  man  did  get  enough,  it  was  at  an  exhorbitant  price, 
fearfully  reducing  his  profits.  Then  the  grass,  if  of  one  crop,  all 
needs  cutting  at  once,  so  it  would  be  impracticable  to  save  it  all  in 
prime  condition. 

Another  improvement  is  the  horse  rake.  The  first  one  used  was 
the  horizontal  rake,  that  running  under  the  swath  heaped  it  up 
until  the  teeth  were  full,  when  by  a  slight  lift  of  the  handles  it 
turned  over,  leaving  the  hay  in  windrows.  This  it  did  very  well, 
and  still  does  well,  bnt  another  has  come  into  very  general  use  that 
is  a  little  more  extensive,  but  gives  the  driver  a  seat  on  it,  and  cer- 
tainly gathers  up  the  grass  cleaner  than  the  other. 

The  Tedder  is  another  machine  that  is  used  extensively  in  the 
Northern  States,  where  the  weather  is  more  uncertain  than  here, 
and  the  hay  dries  much  slower  than  beneath  the  Southern  sun.  It 
is  seldom  used  in  Tennessee,  and  is  but  seldom  necessary. 

CURING. 

This  is  a  point  upon  which  there  is  as  much  difference  of  opinion, 
perhaps,  as  on  any  other  point  connected  with  harvesting.  Some 
prefer  to  let  it  get  dry  on  the  ground  Just  as  it  is  left  by  the  mower 
while  others  cure  it  in  the  windrow,  and  still  others  cure  it  in  the 


(89) 

cock.  This  refers  to  the  true  grasses,  for  almost  every  one  who 
makes  hay  of  the  clover  pursues  one  plan,  which  will  be  spoken  of 
directly.  This  difference  in  the  plans  of  curing  results  chiefly  from 
the  great  difference  there  is  in  the  curing  quality  of  the  various 
grasses.  Timothy  cures  much  easier  and  quicker  than  Herd's 
grass,  while  the  coarser  grasses,  such  as  Gama,  Egyptian  and  others, 
require  still  longer  time  than  Herd's  grass.  Formerly,  it  was  the 
universal  custom  to  allow  it  to  lie  until  it  was  almost  dry  before 
raking,  but  that  custom  is  fast  giving  place  to  a  more  rapid  method. 
Now,  with  many  of  our  best  farmers,  it  is  deemed  sufficient  to 
allow  it  to  remain  on  the  ground  after  cutting  a  time  only  long 
enough  for  it  to  become  wilted,  and  then  with  a  rake  it  is  put  into 
windrows.  Hands  follow  immediately  with  hand  rakes  or  pitch- 
forks, and  throw  it  up  into  cocks.  Some  do  not  even  cock  it,  but, 
if  the  weather  is  favorable,  allow  it  to  remain  in  the  windrow  for  a 
day,  or  the  second  evening  after  cutting,  and  then  gather  it  up  in 
wagons  and  carry  to  the  rick  or  barn.  But  probably  the  surest 
plan  is  to  put  it  into  cocks  the  evening  after  it  is  cut  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  allow  it  to  remain  in  this  state  for  two  or  three  days,  ac- 
cording as  the  promise  of  good  weather  may  be,  then  throw  open 
the  cocks  and  spread  the  hay,  before  hauling  up.  It  can  be  easily 
determined  at  this  stage  whether  or  not  it  is  sufficiently  cured.  If, 
when  examined,  the  cocks  have  become  heated,  by  opening  them 
out  the  heat  that  has  been  generated  will  readily  become  dissipated, 
and  there  is  not  much  likelihood  of  its  becoming  again  heated. 
One  fact  is  well  ascertained,  and  that  is,  the  sooner  it  goes  into  the 
rick  or  barn  after  cutting,  without  spoiling,  the  better  will  be  the 
hay,  and  the  more  will  it  be  relished  by  stock. 

Some  farmers  adopt  the  plan  of  arresting  its  disposition  to  heat 
by  sprinkling  salt  upon  it  as  it  is  stored.  This  is  a  good  plan,  and 
increases  the  fondness  of  stock  for  it  if  too  much  is  not  applied. 
One  hand  should  apply  the  salt  as  it  is  thrown  in,  at  the  rate  of 
about  two  quarts  to  the  two- horse  wagon  load. 

Should  the  farmer  not  wish  to  sell  his  hay,  and  is  scarce  of  a  sup- 
ply, he  can  increase  the  quantity  of  provender  by  mixing,  as  it  is 
put  into  the  heap,  a  third  or  even  a  half  of  straw,  or  inferior  hay, 
that  has  been  left  over,  and  in  the  curing  process  which  takes  place 
the  juices  of  the  new  hay  will  penetrate  and  sweeten  the  straw, 


(  90) 

greatly    improving   its    character,  without    deteriorating   its   own 
quality. 

A  most  excellent  farmer  says  he  waits  until  the  dew  is  off,  then 
starts  his  mower,  and  in  the  evening  about  four  o'clock  starts  the 
rake,  and  has  hands  following  with  forks,  and  by  the  time  the  dew 
is  falling  has  it  all  in  cocks.  The  next  morning,  after  the  dews 
dry  up,  he  opens  and  throws  out  the  cocks,  and  immediately  after 
dinner  begins  to  haul  to  the  barn. 

When  it  is  intended  to  let  it  remain  in  the  cocks  for  several  days, 
great  care  should  be  exercised  in  properly  forming  the  hay  into, 
cocks  in  view  of  wet  weather.  Cocks  indifferently  made  would  be> 
if  possible,  worse  than  if  spread  out,  for  the  water  would  penetrate 
them  all  through,  and  the  hay  would  in  a  short  time  mould  or  rot. 
In  the  first  place,  they  should  be  made  large,  not  less  than  one 
hundred  pounds  in  each  at  any  time.  Then  make  them  as  sharp  at 
the  top  as  possible,  so  as  to  be  stout  and  secure  against  winds. 
Make  the  sides  nearly  perpendicular,  and  lastly,  comb  them  down 
well  from  top  to  bottom  with  a  pitchfork,  so  as  to  throw  as  many 
stems  as  possible  parrallel  with  one  another,  thatching  it  well  in 
order  the  better  to  shed  the  water.  But  even  with  the  most  careful 
management  all  the  outer  layer  and  some  of  the  interior  will  be  de- 
stroyed by  long  continued  rains. 

Cut  clover  when  the  dew  is  off,  let  it  wilt,  and  rake  it  into  wind- 
rows. Allow  it  to  remain  in  this  state  until  the  dew  is  off  the  next 
morning,  and  begin  at  once  to  haul  and  place  in  the  barn,  sprink- 
ling salt  in  small  quantities  over  every  layer.  In  this  way  the  en- 
tire crop  will  be  exposed  only  about  twenty-four  hours,  which  is. 
amply  sufficient  for  it.  It  will  heat  and  go  through  a  heavy  sweat, 
but  this  will  not  injure  it,  and  it  will  look  as  fresh  and  almost  as 
green  when  cured  as  when  standing.  The  salt  is  essential  to  its 
proper  preservation. 

Should  the  farmer  have  a  quantity  of  good  clean  wheat,  oat,  or 
rye  straw,  it  is  a  very  good  practice,  and  a  safe  one,  to  throw  a 
layer  of  it  between  each  load  of  clover.  It  will  permit  the  passage 
of  the  air,  and  the  aroma  of  the  clover  will  penetrate  the  straw, 
each  in  this  manner  benefitting  the  other,  so  that  both  will  be  eaten, 
with  a  relish  by  cattle. 

TROUBLESOME    PLANTS   TO   MEADOWS. 

There  are  several  plants  exceedingly  troublesome  to  the  meadows. 


(  91) 

in  Tennessee.  Among  them  is  the  white  top  (Erigeron  Philadephi- 
cum)  or  fleabane.  This  is  a  perennial,  and  sometimes  infests 
meadows  to  such  an  extent  as  to  render  them  worthless.  Meadows 
troubled  with  them  should  be  mown  several  years  in  succession 
when  the  white  top  begins  to  blossom.  Broom  grass  (Andropogon 
scoparius)  is  also  very  pestiferous,  destroying  meadows  after  four  or 
five  years  unless  closely  watched,  and  the  broom  grass  cut  up  by 
the  roots  every  spring.  The  trumpet  creeper  (Bignonia  radicans} 
infests  meadows  in  rich  bottom  lands,  and  when  cut  off  by  the 
mower  forms  hard  knots,  which  will  arrest  the  action  of  the  sickle. 
This  vine  should  be  dug  up  "root  and  branch."  White  clover  and 
blue-grass  are  both  great  enemies  to  the  meadow,  and  when  they 
prevail  to  any  extent  it  is  best  to  use  the  meadow  as  a  pasture,  and 
sow  another  meadow  somewhere  else. 

A  top  dressing  of  superphosphate  or  of  stable  manure  every  fall,, 
after  a  crop  of  hay  is  taken  off,  will  also  do  much  to  keep  down, 
noxious  weeds  and  grasses.  The  farmer  should  always  bear  in 
mind  that  meadows  require  to  be  regularly  fed.  It  is  too  much  to, 
expect  that  they  will  grow  heavy  crops  of  hay  year  after  year  with- 
out exhausting  the  elements  in  the  soil  which  go  to  make  hay. 
These  elements  must  be  supplied.  Restitution  must  be  made  if  the 
farmer  expects  to  have  luxuriant  and  profitable  meadows.  The 
best  rule  to  adopt  is,  never  to  take  off  a  crop  of  hay  without  making 
a  liberal  application  of  manure. 

A   WORD   ABOUT   MANURES. 

The  people  of  the  South  have  much  to  learn  in  regard  to  the  success- 
ful management  of  meadow  lands.  Many  farmers  seem  to  think  it 
possible  to  take  large  crops  of  hay  from  the  same  land  year  after  year 
without  adding  any  fertilizers.  This  is  a  grand  mistake.  One  had 
just  as  well  expect  to  check  on  his  bank  account  day  after  day  with- 
out making  additions  to  his  deposits,  as  to  check  on  the  soil  for 
large  crops  without  properly  feeding  the  land  which  grows  them. 

The  question  we  ought  to  consider  is,  how  to  manage  meadows- 
after  they  are  properly  sown  and  a  stand  of  grass  secured,  so  as  not 
only  to  keep  up  their  fertility,  but  to  increase  their  power  of 
production. 

This  question  is  so  well  understood  by  English  farmers  that  they 
seldom  take  a  crop  of  hay  from  a  piece  of  land  without  making  a 


(92) 

large  and  expensive  application  of  manure.  If  the  hay  is  cut 
several  times  a  year  it  is  a  heavy  draft  upon  the  soil,  and  some 
restitution  must  be  made  to  the  soil  or  it  will  soon  cease  to  meet 
the  expectations  of  the  husbandman.  The  English  farmer,  en- 
lightened by  experience,  in  order  to  strengthen  the  land  and  stimu- 
late the  grass  roots  to  renewed  exertion,  will  draw  out  upon  the 
meadow  various  kinds  of  manure  to  supply  whatever  wants  he 
may  deem  the  land  requires. 

There  are  not  many  kinds  of  manure  in  reach  of  a  Tennessee 
farmer,  unless  he  takes  the  forethought  to  provide  them.  But  if 
he  does  take  this  in  mind,  and  watches  closely  for  everything  that 
will  contribute  to  this  end,  he  will  be  surprised  himself  at  the  result 
in  a  very  short  time.  Besides  those  elements  that  are  at  the  com- 
mand of  every  careful  farmer,  there  is  another  class  of  manures 
called  "  artificial,"  and  these  can  be  procured  at  any  place  by  a 
sufficient  outlay.  But  they  are  costly,  and  it  requires  a  scientific 
acquaintance  with  their  properties  before  the  ordinary  farmer  will 
have  the  courage  to  invest  in  them.  In  other  words,  he  must  be 
able  to  see  why  and  how  his  money  will  be  returned  with  interest. 

In  order  to  properly  understand  the  requirements  of  plants,  it  is 
essential  the  action  of  the  different  manures  should  be  known,  to- 
gether with  an  approximate  knowledge  of  the  constituents  of  the 
soil.  Soils  are  the  result  of  the  degredation,  or  breaking  down, 
from  various  causes,  of  rocks.  Through  the  great  convulsions  of 
nature  this  triturated  dust  is  mingled  together,  so  that  every  specie* 
of  rock  formation  is  represented  in  every  handful  of  clay.  Were 
this  not  the  case,  we  would  have  over  limestone  rocks  a  great  mass 
of  unproductive  pulverized  carbonate  of  lime ;  or  over  granite, 
we  would  see  nothing  but  the  sparkling  atoms  of  quartz  and  mica, 
and  over  each  stratum  there  would  be  the  constituents  of  that  rock, 
and  hence  no  vegetation  would  charm  the  eye  or  delight  the  heart, 
to  say  nothing  of  our  digestive  wants.  Through  the  agency  of 
perfectly  natural  causes  (water  principally),  the  soils  have  been 
intimately  mingled.  By  this  wise  provision  vegetation  in  every 
spot  in  the  world  finds  some  elements  necessary  to  its  existence. 
But  it  sometimes  happens  that  there  is  a  deficiency  of  some  of  the 
elements,  and  again  that  there  is  a  surplus.  In  the  great  alluvial 
s  wamps  decayed  vegetable  matters  exist  to  such  an  extent  that 
some  cereals  do  not  thrive  well,  and  on  the  other  hand,  on  the 


(93) 

steep  mountain  sides,  by  the  action  of  washing  rains,  this  matter 
has  been  carried  off.  Again,  in  many  sections,  the  fertile  matters 
have  been  exhausted,  or  so  nearly  so,  that  the  products  of  the  soil 
cease  to  be  remunerative.  It  is  the  province  of  scientific  agricul- 
ture to  point  out  these  deficiencies  and  direct  the  remedy. 

The  soil  originally  consisted  simply  of  the  debris  of  the  rocks 
or  clay.  It  is  composed  of  the  elements  of  the  rocks,  together 
•with  an  intimate  admixture  of  some  mineral  substances.  In  limit- 
ed patches  the  soil  partakes  of  the  character  of  the  formations  un- 
derneath. Thus,  in  iron  districts,  the  soil  in  places  shows  the 
presence,  in  considerable  quantities  of  iron,  making  the  earth  red 
or  brown.  In  sandstone  countries  the  clay  has  a  quantity  of  sand 
overlying  it,  and  among  the  primitive  rocks  scales  of  mica  glisten 
on  every  side.  The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  thoroughly  dried 
soil  averages  as  follows  : 

Pounds. 

Siliceous  sand 111.3 

Calcareous  sand 113.6 

Sandy  clay 97.8 

Loamy  clay 88.8 

Stiff  clay 80.3 

Slaty  marl 112. 

Fertile  mould 68.7 

Common  arable  soil 84.5 

Chemists,  from  the  earliest  times,  have  been  struck  with  the 
great  proportion  of  insoluble  to  soluble  substances  in  the  soil. 
These  insoluble  substances  will  resist  the  action  of  acid  and  alkali 
in  any  quantities  short  of  destroying  vegetation.  Analysis  have 
striven  by  the  aid  of  weak  solutions  of  acids  and  alkalies  to  effect 
this,  and  though  the  science  is  by  no  means  perfect,  they  have  suc- 
ceeded in  rendering  much  inert  matter,  that  has  hitherto  cumbered 
the  land  into  plant  food.  In  an  average  of  many  kinds  of  soil  the 
proportions  are,  of 

Insoluble  matters '. 89.305 

Soluble  matters 2.047 

Phosphate,  carbon,  and  sulphate  lime 3.160 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  of  the  great  mass  of  soil,  ranging  from  a 
few  inches  to  many  hundred  feet  thick,  only  a  very  small  per  cent 
is  available  to  vegetation.  Further,  chemical  analysis  has  also  de- 
veloped the  fact  that  all  animal  tissues  are  composed  of  these 


(94) 

identical  elements  of  the  soil.  Truly  and  literally  we  are  made  of 
dust;  but  the  animal  kingdom  does  not  derive  its  sustenance  di- 
rectly from  the  soil — that  would  be  impossible.  Our  digestive 
organs  are  not  constructed  for  that  purpose,  and  could  not  assim- 
ilate such  food,  though  in  the  great  famine  of  Germany,  in  the  18th 
century,  the  starving  millions  did  essay  it  only  to  die  in  torture. 
Nature  has  provided  an  intermediate  agent,  vegetation,  whose 
organs  are  nicely  adapted  to  this  purpose.  They  send  down  into 
the  soil  their  sensitive  feelers,  and  pick  up  such  stray  bits  of  food 
as  men  or  beasts  require.  They  store  it  away  in  their  granaries 
until  it  is  called  for,  and  these  kind  friends  are  thus  the  purveyors 
to  animal  life.  Not  only  is  a  man  thus  directly  fed  by  these 
natural  agents,  but,  to  keep  up  a  constant  unceasing  supply,  a  large 
proportion  is  sent  back  to  the  soil  in  a  form  to  invigorate  man's 
food.  This  refunded  capital  is  variously  called  humin,  ulmin, 
geine.  Ulmin,  or  ulmic  acid,  is  the  first  formed  ;  humin  is  formed 
from  ulmin  by  the  absorption  of  oxygen  ;  geine,  or  geic  acid,  from 
humin  by  the  further  absorption  of  oxygen. 

We  will  describe  all  these  changes,  however,  under  the  general 
term  of  geine.  Under  some  form  geine  is  essential  to  agriculture. 
It  is  the  result  of  decaying  vegetable  matter,  or,  in  other  words,  it 
is  the  active  principle  of  mould,  and  is  the  direct  result  of  putre- 
faction. It  is  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen.  It  has  a  powerful 
affinity  for  nitrogen,  one  of  the  constituents  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  whenever  it  comes  in  contact,  the  hydrogen  of  the  geine  unites 
with  the  nitrogen  of  the  air,  and  ammonia  is  the  result.  It  also 
absorbs  water  freely,  and  this  is  why  bottom  lands,  full  of  geine, 
fail  to  suffer  from  drought.  The  geine  attracts  moisture  from  the 
air,  and  keeps  the  plant  alive.  These  salts,  humin,  ulmin,  and 
geine,  were  formerly  called  extract  of  mould.  They  are,  for  the 
most  part,  soluble  in  water.  For  the  sake  of  brevity,  we  will  em- 
brace all  these  salts,  ae  well  as  crenic  and  apocrenic  acids,  conver- 
tible with  the  salts,  under  the  general  term  mould.  So  far  as 
nourishment  is  derived  from  the  soil,  this  substance  is  the  food  of 
plants.  It  has  been  deposited  over  the  clay  by  the  general  decay 
of  vegetation,  through  many  ages,  and  according  to  the  amount 
deposited  depends  the  value  of  the  land. 

Why  it  is  that   plants  live  and  grow,  or  how  they  grow  is  a 
mystery  no  philosopher  has  ever  been  able  to  explain.     God  gives 


(  95) 

the  vital  principle,  and  so  long  as  that  continues  the  plant  is  able 
to  resist  an  opposing  power,  which  is  chemistry.  When  life  ceases, 
chemistry  then  asserts  its  power,  and  decay  begins,  which  leads  to 
fermentation,  and  after  this  process  is  ended,  putrefaction  takes 
charge,  which  soon  resolves  the  body  into  its  original  elements ; 
and  they  are  then  ready  to  aid  in  the  construction  of  another  living 
body.  Thus  nothing  is  ever  lost.  It  may  change  its  location  ; 
the  plant  that  grew  at  the  head  of  a  mountain  torrent  may  ulti- 
mately enter  into  the  composition  of  a  sugar  cane  in  the  delta  of 
the  Mississippi*  but  it  is  still  in  the  universe,  silently  performing 
its  duties. 

Many  things  contain  salts  available  to  the  agriculturist.  Lime, 
ashes,  plaster  of  Paris  (sulphate  of  lime),  saltpetre,  common  salt, 
phosphate  of  lime,  bone  dust,  coal  ashes,  hair,  hoofs,  horns,  cop- 
peras, and  many  others.  Some  of  these  substances  have  to  be  used 
sparingly,  such  as  salt  or  copperas,  but  all  are  beneficial  to  growing 
plants. 

These  substances  act  chemically,  and  free  a  great  many  inert 
matters.  Growing  plants  absorb  vast  quantities  of  carbonic  acid 
through  their  leaves,  and  carrying  it  down,  throw  it  into  the  soil, 
where  it  acts  upon  silica  and  allumina,  freeing  salts  for  their 
growth. 

Wood  and  coal  ashes  are  very  rich  in  the  salts,  and  furnish  one 
of  the  cheapest  and  best  additions  that  can  be  made  to  land.  CVal 
ashes  are  not  so  rich  in  the  various  salts,  but  contain  enough  to 
merit  a  better  late  than  is  generally  awarded  them.  The  composi- 
tion of  wood  ashes  is  as  follows  : 

Two  hundred  parts  of  wood  ashes  contain 

Per  cent. 

Carbonic  acid 58-53 

Sulphuric  acid 6.43 

Phosphoric  acid 3-4^ 

Muriatic  acid I-82 

Lime 50.35 

Magnesia 4- 

Potash  and  soda 67-96 

Silex 5-22 

Oxide  iron 50 

Oxide  manganese *-™ 

Water ••     -14 

200.00 


(96) 

Of  this  27.14  parts  are  soluble  at  once  in  water,  and  leached 
ashes  are  deprived  of  it,  and  the  balance,  172.86  parts,  are  insolu- 
ble, but  act  slowly  on  the  soil,  freeing  various  substances  in  the 
process  of  time.  Coal  ashes  contain  these  same  ingredients  in  a 
much  less  degree,  or  if  soil  is  entirely  deprived  of  its  vegetable 
mould,  it  is  identical  almost  with  coal  ashes.  Each  hundred 
pounds  contain  eight  that  are  at  once  valuable  to  the  farmer,  and 
another  portion  has  a  prospective  value.  Coal  ashes  are  worth  a 
good  deal  simply  as  a  mechanical  loosener  of  the  soil.  Mixed  with 
it,  in  even  small  proportions,  it  renders  the  soil  friable  and  easily 
worked. 

Having  now  explained  that  there  is  a  principle  called  mould  or 
geine,  and  that  this  principle  is  necessary  to  fertility,  and,  also, 
that  this  principle,  to  be  in  an  available  form,  must  be  reacted  on 
by  salts,  it  remains  to  enquire  what  is  the  best  form  in  which  these 
elements  are  united.  Practically,  every  farmer  in  the  country  will 
at  once  answer  stable  manure.  And,  as  is  generally  the  case,  prac- 
tice has  long  found  out  what  science  seeks  a  reason  for.  A  careful 
analysis  of  cow  manure,  which  is  generally  accepted  as  the  unit  of 
value,  shows  that  cow  dung  consists,  not  to  go  into  an  ultimate 
analysis,  of 

Per  cent. 

Watar 83.60 

Salts 095 

^^ 15.45 

This  seems  to  be  a  small  proportion  of  valuable  matter,  only  one- 
sixth  of  the  whole  amount.  But  let  us  see  what  a  careful  farmer 
can  do  by  saving  for  a  year.  In  an  experiment,  conducted  care- 
fully and  published  a  few  years  ago,  an  average  cow  was  selected, 
and  everything  she  ate  or  drank  was  carefully  weighed,  as  well  as 
all  the  voidings  of  dung.  This  .experiment  lasted  seven  days,  and 
from  a  calculation,  this  cow  would  have  made  in  one  year,  4,800 
pounds  geine,  71  pounds  bone  dust,  37  pounds  plaster,  37  pounds 
lime,  25  pounds  common  salt,  J5  pounds  sulphate  potash.  This, 
carefully  saved,  furnishes  salts  of  lime  equal  to  four  and  a  half 
bushels  of  corn  daily,  or  1,662£  annually.  Not  only  is  this  amount 
saved,  but  in  addition  the  nitrogen  that  is  in  it,  by  chemical  affin- 
ity, creates  a  large  amount  of  ammonia,  that  is  fixed  and  amounts 
in  a  year  to  677  pounds.  To  the  nitrogen  is  due  much  of  the  ex- 


(97  ) 

cellence  of  this  stimulant,  and  without  the  animal  matter,  or  nitro- 
gen, it  would  be  nothing  more  than  decayed  wood  and  salts.  It  is 
a  common  idea  that  the  activity  of  stable  manure  is  due  entirely  to 
the  animal  excrements.  It  is  due  rather  to  the  happy  combination 
of  ammonia,  geine,  and  salts,  such  as  no  chemist  can  manufacture 
from  the  food  of  the  cow.  Were  this  possible,  a  pile  of  rotted  hay 
and  turnips  would  supply  all  these  united  elements.  But  effort  has 
demonstrated  that  it  cannot  be  done.  Nor  does  the  food  of  a  cow 
affect,  but  little,  the  elements  of  dung.  A  cow  fed  on  rich  nitro- 
genous food,  such  as  corn  or  oats,  will  give  some  more  nitrogen  in 
the  dung,  and  form  more  ammonia,  but  the  salts  and  geine  will  be 
but  little  changed. 

Horse  dung  is  much  richer  in  manures  than  cow  dung;  but 
horse  dung  very  quickly  ferments,  and,  by  fermentation,  it  will  lose 
one- third  its  value  in  one  month.  It  is,  therefore,  very  necessary 
to  remove,  as  often  as  possible,  the  horse  dung  from  the  stable,  and 
place  it  in  the  compost  heap  with  the  cattle  dung,  or  with  alternate 
layers  of  soil,  and  sprinkled  with  lime  or  plaster.  These  salts  will 
catch  and  fix  the  escaping  ammonia,  and  prevent  much  loss.  After 
horse  dung  has  fermented,  if  alone,  it  is  of  far  less  value  than  cow 
dung,  but  before  it  ferments  it  is  much  more  valuable.  When  that 
process  is  completed  fully,  nine-tents  of  its  value,  according  to  our 
best  writers,  is  lost.  These  are  statements  based,  not  only  on  ex- 
perience and  observation,  but  also  on  absolute  chemical  analyses. 
How  much  it  stands  the  farmer  in  hand  then  to  observe  a  system- 
atic saving  and  storing  of  these  treasures  of  agricultural  wealth ! 
A  compost  heap,  under  a  good  shelter,  is  to  the  uninformed  a  heap 
reeking  with  filth,  repulsive  to  the  eye  and  offensive  to  the  olfacto- 
ries. But  to  the  scientific  farmer  it  is  a  bed  of  power.  In  it  are 
contained  the  yellow  grain  and  the  luscious  fruit ;  over  it  hovers 
the  spirit  of  the  rose  and  the  lily,  and  sweet' odors  are  stored  in  it,, 
to  make  the  fragrant  pink  and  the  delicious  heliotrope.  Let  every 
consideration  of  economy  and  enterprise  stimulate  the  farmer,  then,, 
to  save  every  waste  of  the  farm.  The  Chinese  are  so  sensible  of 
the  importance  of  manure,  in  a  country  teeming  with  an  over  pop- 
ulation, where  the  soil  is  tasked  to  its  utmost  to  carry  its  popula- 
tion, they  even  save  the  parings  of  their  finger  and  toe  nails  to  add 
to  its  fertility.  The  farmer  has  a  wonderful  bank  to  draw  upon  for 
this  purpose.  Cattle  and  horse  dung  and  urine,  the  scrapings  of 
7 


(  98) 

the  barnyard  after  every  rain,  straw,  stalks,  leaves  of  the  forest, 
drifts  on  the  banks  of  streams,  all  contribute  their  share  in  the  gen- 
eral enrichment  of  the  farm.  And  any  one  would  be  surprised  at 
the  amount  accumulated  for  the  spring  scattering,  if  systematically 
carried  on  for  one  year.  It  requires  but  a  little  time,  too,  if  a  reg- 
ular time  be  given  to  it.  Regularity  and  system  are  the  great 
watchwords  of  improvement. 

Millions  of  dollars  are  annually  wasted  by  burning  straw  and 
stalks,  which,  if  carried  to  the  stables  and  barn  yard,  would  act  as 
solvents,  to  catch  this  daily  waste.  If  the  ashes,  resulting  from 
the  burning  straw,  were  as  good  manure  as  the  straw  itself,  then 
burning  would  not  be  wasteful.  But  a  large  amount  of  valuable 
matter  goes  into  the  air  as  gases,  besides  much  is  blown  away  by 
the  winds.  A  Mr.  Lawes,  of  England,  determined  this  matter  of 
burning  manure  in  -an  experiment  that  was  botk  fair  and  positive. 
He  took  28  tons  of  yard  manure,  and  divided  it;  fourteen  tons  were 
reduced  by  fire,  leaving  32  cwt.  of  ashes.  He  then  scattered  the 
fourteen  tons  of  manure  left  on  one  acre  of  land,  and  the  32  cwt.  of 
ashes  on  another  acre  of  land,  and  left  another  acre  without  any 
application.  He  cultivated  them  all  well  and  alike. 

The  manured  acre  made  twenty-two  bushels  of  wheat,  the  ashed 
acre  made  sixteen  bushels,  and  the  unmanured  acre  made  sixteen 
bushels.  This  proves  that  the  more  nitrogen  manure  contains  in 
combination  with  the  salts,  the  more  value  it  has. 

Night  soil,  or  the  excrement  of  human  beings,  is,  next  to  chicken 
manure,  the  richest  and  most  stimulating  of  all  manures.  Then 
comes  that  of  fattening  hogs  and  sheep,  horses  and  cows.  But,  as 
before  stated,  the  disposition  to  waste  is  so  great,  that  the  "cold" 
manures,  as  that  of  cows,  sheep  and  hogs,  are  more  available  to  the 
farmer  than  the  more  active  ones  of  man  and  horse. 

Too  much  care  cannot  be  exercised  in  preserving  the  eserements 
of  men  and  animals.  Every  pound  of  ammonia  that  is  lost  or  evap- 
orates represents  the  amount  required  for  a  bushel  of  corn  ;  and 
every  pound  of  the  urine  of  a  horse  or  man  will  furnish  sufficient 
ammonia  for  a  pound  of  wheat ;  and  two  and  a  half  pounds  of  the 
urine  of  man  will  furnish  the  phosphoric  acid  and  more  than  half 
of  the  potash  required  for  a  pound  of  wheat. 

It  then  remains  for  us  to  make  the  application  of  these  remarks, 
*nd  every  right-thinking  man  will  see  at  once  the  importance  of 


(  99  ) 

gathering  up  and  saving.  It  is  money  in  his  pocket.  One  man 
will  burn  a  few  bushels  of  soil,  and  setting  it  near  the  privy,  will 
throw,  every  day,  a  tew  handsfull  on  the  pile  of  excrement,  and  in 
a  few  months  he  will  fill  his  barrels  with  the  most  valuable  poud- 
rette,  that  another  man  will  go  to  the  city  and  pay  a  large  price  for. 
One  man  will  set  a  few  barrels  of  ashes  in  a  convenient  place,  and 
cause  the  house-cleaner  to  empty  the  urine  of  the  night  into  them. 
In  a  few  months  he  will  have  his  ashes  thoroughly  saturated  with 
salts  and  organic  mutter  the  most  valuable. 

In  England,  farmers  do  not  consider  it  any  hardship  to  dig  cis- 
terns, in  which  to  save  all  the  liquid  excrements  of  the  cows  and 
horses,  and  with  a  water  cart,  spread  it  over  their  pastures  and 
meadows. 

Many  object  to  the  use  of  human  excrement,  on  account  of  its 
offensiveness.  This  can  be  easily  prevented,  and  at  the  same  time 
by  an  agent  that  is  a  valuable  addition  to  the  manure  heap.  The 
sulphate  of  iron  (copperas),  is  a  powerful  deodorizer,  and  a  few 
cents  worth  added  to  the  night  soil  deprive  it  of  any  offensive  smell 
for  a  length  of  time  sufficiently  long  to  remove  it. 

A  great  many  bones  are  wasted  on  every  farm  that  make  valu- 
able manure,  and  are  easily  prepared  for  use.  Let  a  barrel  be  de- 
voted to  bones,  and  whenever  a  bone  is  thrown  into  it,  cover  it  up 
with  unleached  ashes.  Let  the  barrel  stand  in  the  weather,  and  in 
a  few  months  the  bones  will  be  so  friable  they  may  be  easily  broken 
and  converted  into  an  unadultered  bone  dust,  better  than  can  be 
bought  in  any  of  the  agricultural  stores.  Or,  if  he  cannot  wait 
this  slow  process,  they  are  easily  burned  and  crushed. 

In  making  soap,  much  fine  phosphate  of  lime  is  thrown  out  in 
the  shape  of  half  eaten  bones,  and  in  spent  lie.  Soap  suds  are  also 
a  fine  addition  to  the  manure  or  compost  heap.  In  these  are  found 
not  only  the  alkalies  of  soda  and  potash,  but  also  much  nitrogenous 
matter  in  the  shape  of  grease.  All  these  assist  in  enriching  our 
heap. 

No  farm  yard  is  without  the  best  guano.  It  is  true,  the  guano 
of  the  shops  is  from  sea  birds,  whose  food  is  fish,  but  the  guano  of 
the  chicken  house  is  exceedingly  valuable  and  well  worth  saving. 
Mixing  it  with  soil  or  ashes  and  sowing  over  a  garden  plat,  rather 
thinly,  for  it  is  very  rich,  its  effects  are  seen  to  the  row.  However, 
the  dung  of  fowls  and  especially  of  pigeons,  is  best  appHed  in  the 


(  100  ) 

form  of  solution.  It  is  not  so  apt  to  burn  up  the  plant  in  this 
manner.  One  part  of  manure  to  ten  parts  of  water  will  make  a 
fine  wash  for  vines,  or  for  fruit  trees  it  is  unexcelled.  Another  ad- 
dition to  the  heap  is  skins,  carrion,  either  of  animals  or  fowls,  scales 
of  fishes,  hair,  hoofs,  and  in  fact,  every  kind  of  animal  substance 
that  may  come  within  reach  that  is  worthless.  Instead  of  dragging 
off  dead  horses  or  cows,  as  an  attraction  for  buzzards  and  dogs,  cut 
them  up  and  let  them  add  to  the  manure  heap.  In  this  way  a  val- 
uable addition  will  be  made. 

Among  the  richest  of  all  manures,  not  excepting  animal  matters 
even,  is  soot.  It  is  not  only  rich  in  salts,  but  in  geine.  It  is  said 
there  are  as  much  salts  in  100  Ibs.  of  soot  as  there  are  in  one  ton  of 
cow  dung.  Nothing  is  better  for  vegetables,  than  an  application  of 
water  with  soot  dissolved  in  it.  Be'sides,  bugs  are  not  fond  of  it, 
and  it  drives  them  away.  Throw  all  the  soot  of  the  chimneys,  by 
all  means,  on  the  heap. 

Sheep  dung  is  one  of  our  finest  manures,  and  what  is  better,  the 
animals  do  the  spreading  themselves.  A  worn-out  meadow  or 
pasture  if  given  to  the  sheep,  and  they  are  kept  in  it  any  length  of 
time,  will  be  restored  to  its  pristine  fertility.  It  is  said  that  1,000 
sheep  run  on  a  piece  of  ground  one  year  will  make  the  soil  capable 
of  yielding  grain  enough,  over  and  above  the  capacity  of  the  soil 
without  the  sheep  manure,  to  support  1,035  sheep  an  entire  year. 
Unless  the  sheep  are  nightly  folded,  however,  the  manure  cannot 
be  gathered.  If  it  can  be  collected,  put  on  the  pile,  by  all  means. 

We  have  now  enumerated  the  principal  sources  whence  a  farmer 
can  draw  his  supplies  without  drawing  upon  his  pocket.  Many 
kinds,  under  our  system  of  farming,  are  unavailable  to  the  farmer. 
I  mean  the  liquids.  Without  floors  to  the  stables  and  pig-pens, 
the  urine,  which  is  the  richest  of  manures,  so  far  as  salts  are  con- 
cerned, is  wasted.  But  he  can  save  his  own,  and  the  excrements  of 
one  man,  properly  saved  for  one  year,  will  well  manure  one  acre  of 
land.  Why  let  these  rivers  of  wealth  flow  away  from  the  farm  ? 
He  prefers  going  to  the  shops  and  buying  worse  than  he  can  prepare 
on  his  farm. 

There  are  many  artificial  manures  for  sale.  Plasters  from  Ken- 
tucky and  Virginia ;  phosphate  of  lime  from  South  Carolina ;  bone 
dust  from  the  large  cities,  and  many  other  mixtures  and  compounds. 


(  101  ) 

But  scarcely  a  farmer  but  what  has  at  his  command  a  manure,  rich 
in  every  respect  and  with  the  addition  of  a  cheap  alkali,  equal  in 
chemical  properties  to  cow  dung  :  I  mean  the  scrapings  of  ponds, 
and  the  mud  of  rivers  and  creeks.  West  Tennessee  has  an  area 
containing  pure  muck,  the  balance  of  the  State  has  no  such  advant- 
age; but  next  to  muck,  and  nearly  as  valuable,  is  pond  and  river 
mud.  By  the  addition  of  two  pounds  of  sal  soda  or  potash,  such  as  is 
used  for  washing  purposes,  to  100  Ibs.  of  muck,  the  mass  becomes, 
as  near  as  possible  cow  dung.  So  here  we  have  an  almost  inexhaus- 
tible supply  of  cow  dung,  without  its  smell  or  offensiveness.  The 
green  sand  beds  in  West  Tennessee  also  will  supply  fertilizers  in 
unlimited  quantities. 

Here  then,  the  provident  farmer  has  all  that  is  requisite  to  enrich 
his  grounds  before  seeding  to  grass.  It  is  needless  to  say  that 
clover,  as  a  preceding  crop  to  land  that  is  about  to  enter  the  long 
and  tedious  travail  of  meadow,  is  absolutely  requisite.  But  after 
it  is  started,  the  farmer  need  not  think,  for  one  moment,  that  grass 
adds  to  its  fertility.  It  does  not,  but  on  the  other  hand  detracts 
just  what  the  farmer  cuts  off;  and  if  he  is  a  wise  farmer,  he  will 
put  it  back  in  a  shape  to  increase  his  drafts  on  it. 

When  a  meadow  or  pasture  becomes  packed,  from  too  much  pas- 
turage, it  will  be  well  enough  to  run  a  subsoil  through  it  occasion- 
ally. This  loosens  the  under  sod,  and  the  narrow  helve  does  not 
tear  up  the  turf.  Of  course  the  land  has  been,  if  required,  well 
drained.  In  addition  to  this,  for  the  renovation  of  such  lands,  the 
application  of  manure  is  indispensable.  It  should  be  applied  im- 
mediately after  a  cutting,  as  it  will  stimulate  the  roots,  made  weak 
by  being  deprived  of  their  foliage,  to  renewed  growth,  and  prevent 
much  of  it  from  drying.  Of  course  it  must  be  done  by  top  dress- 
ing, and  by  far  the  most  efficacious  plan  is  to  apply  it  in  the  liquid 
form.  It  may  be  done  by  diluting  the  manure  with  from  five  to 
ten  parts  of  water,  and  using  a  cart,  such  as  is  used  for  sprinkling 
streets.  Another,  and  the  most  common  way,  is  to  drive  through 
the  meadow  with  a  load  of  good  compost,  such  as  we  have  described, 
and  with  two  hands  in  the  rear  of  the  wagon  with  shovels,  it  can 
be  scattered  broadcast  as  fast  as  the  team  will  walk. 

Pastures  treated  to  a  top-dressing  after  every  cutting  could,  like 
the  English  pastures,  instead  of  three  acres  to  the  ox,  feed  three 
oxen  to  one  acre,  and  the  meadows  would  not  yield  a  scanty  ton 


(  102) 

to  the  acre,  but  we  could  continue  to  cut  until  stopped  by  cold 
weather.  An  English  tenant  will  pay  ten  pounds  ($50)  rent  per 
acre  for  meadows,  and  get  always  two,  frequently  three,  crops  per 
year,  yielding  from  three  to  five  tons  per  acre.  We  could  do  this 
also  by  following  the  same  system  of  farming,  and  that  is  to  run 
the  manure  wagon  constantly. 


DHOUBO    CORN,     DURRA    OR    DOURA,    INDIAN    MILLET-^ 
(Sorghum  vulgare.) 

In  the  West  Indies,  it  is  called  guinea  corn,  in  Arabia,  dhouro,  in 
India,  jovaree,  and  in  China,  nagara.  In  some  countries  it  is  cul- 
tivated as  a  forage  plant,  the  stems  containing  a  large  proportion  of 
saccharine  matter,  and  when  dry  affording  a  fine  hay,  though  rough. 
The  nutritive  quality  of  the  seeds  nearly  equals  that  of  wheat, 
From  its  resemblance  to  Indian  corn,  in  the  south  of  Europe,  it  is 
called  small  maize.  On  rich  land  it  grows  from  eight  to  twelve 
feet  high,  and  it  produces  more  bushels  of  seed  than  any  other 
known  cereal  to  the  acre. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  this  cereal,  being  sports  from  the 
original.  Chocolate  corn,  Tennessee  rice,  chicken  corn,  are  some 
of  its  synonyms.  It  is  a  native  of  Central  Asia,  and  is  cultivated 
extensively  in  Asia,  Africa,  West  Indies,  Brazil,  and  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  United  States.  It  will  grow  to  perfection  from 
Pennsylvania  to  Florida.  There  are  two  varieties  usually  culti- 
vated, the  "  white "  and  the  "  red,"  both  good,  but  the  red  pro~ 
duces  a  great  many  more  seeds — some  say  as  many  as  four  times 
the  quantity  of  the  other.  The  red  matures  earlier,  too  ;  the  white, 
being  in  higher  latitudes,  is  often  caught  by  frosts.  The  latter^ 
however,  is  preferable  when  intended  for  food.  A  failure  of  this 
crop  in  Arabia  and  Africa,  would  be  as  great  a  calamity  as  that  of 
corn  in  the  United  States.  The  meal  is  white  and  makes  delicious 
breakfast  cakes,  and  is  said  to  be  much  better  than  corn  meal. 

Its  yield  varies  according  to  the  soil  on  which  it  is  sown.  On 
rich  sandy  loam  or  alluvial  bottoms,  it  will  make  from  100  to  150 
bushels  per  acre,  but  unlike  the  other  cereals,  except  buckwheat,  it 
will  grow  well  on  soil  however  poor.  On  rocky  olayey  land,  that 
will  scarcely  sprout  foxtail,  I  have  seen  the  most  luxuriant  crops. 
It  will  continue  to  grow  until  frost,  and  after  the  first  head  matures 


(  103) 

it  throws  out  succors  fram  other  joints,  and  makes  smaller  heads. 
This  is  expedited  by  going  over  it  and  culling  out  as  fast  as  it 
ripens.  Stock  of  all  kinds  are  fond  of  it,  and  will  greedily  eat  it. 
It  is  almost  equal  to  Indian  corn  for  fattening  food  for  hogs. 

The  ground  is  plowed  as  well  as  possible,  and  then  thrown  into 
low  ridges,  or  even  better,  no  ridges  at  all ;  the  seeds  are  then 
drilled  three  feet  apart,  with  a  seed  drill.  If  sown  by  hand,  the 
rows  are  made  with  a  bull-tongue  plow  and  covered  with  a  harrow. 
A  peck  of  seeds  is  enough  for  an  acre,  unless  they  are  weevil  eaten, 
when  more  should  be  used.  They  should  be  covered  very  lightly, 
not  more  than  an  inch  and  a  half  deep.  When  they  come  up  they 
should  be  thinned  out  by  chopping  across  the  row,  leaving  the 
plants  eighteen  inches  apart,  then  one  or  two  good  plowings  are  all 
the  crop  requires.  There  need  be  no  fear  of  weeds  or  grass  after 
it  once  starts  out  to  grow,  as  its  enormous  foliage,  and  thickly 
clustering  suckers  choke  out  everything  else  on  the  ground.  It 
grows  very  rapidly,  and  will  soon  be  ready  for  harvesting.  There 
are  various  ways  for  doing  this,  according  to  the  fancy  of  the  far- 
mer. Some  cut  off  the  seed  heads  as  they  ripen,  and  turn  stock  on 
the  stalks,  which  will  eat  them  up  quite  clean.  Others  will  cut 
the  stalks  just  before  frost,  scouring  them  and  feeding  them  as  hay 
through  the  winter ;  and  these  stalks  will  keep  better  than  any 
other  of  the  pithy  grasses,  not  securing  like  Indian  corn  or  sugar 
cane.  Still  others  wait  until  the  largest  quantity  of  seeds  is  ripe^ 
and  then  cut,  and  house  seeds,  stalks  and  all  together.  If  the  fod- 
der is  pulled  it  makes  excellent  feed,  in  fact  every  part  of  the 
plant  makes  good  feed  for  some  animals.  Care  should  be  exercised 
to  protect  it  from  fowls,  as  they  are  so  fond  of  the  seeds  that,  fre- 
quently, whole  fields  are  stripped. 

It  is  often  planted  in  the  missing  places  of  corn,  and  it  does  far 
better  than  a  replant  of  corn,  as  one  stalk  will  throw  out  numerous 
suckers,  making  several  large  heads  and  ripening  with  the  corn. 
Drought  has  but  little  effect  in  retarding  its  growth.  It  retains  its 
dark  green  color  and  luxuriant  foliage  when  other  plants  are  shriv- 
eled up  by  the  heat. 

In  the  South  it  is  sown  thickly  in  drills,  and  cut  for  soiling 
stock,  and  if  not  allowed  to  flower,  it  will  bear  cutting  until  frost 
comes.  Many  sow  it  broadcast  for  hay.  Prepare  the  ground  well, 
and  sow  one  bushel  of  seed  to  the  acre,  harrowing  it  in.  It  makes 


(  104) 

an  enormous  yield  of  hay,  but,  from  the  succulent  character  of  the 
stalks,  it  is  difficult  to  cure,  unless  a  good  "spell"  can  be  caught. 
However,  if  the  farmer  has  a  drove  of  mules  or  steers  to  fatten,  he 
can  cut  a  load  or  two  at  a  time,  throwing  it  into  a  rack,  which  can 
be  replenished  as  required,  and  the  hay  will  remain  green  on  the 
ground  until  frost,  so  that  there  is  no  danger  of  its  being  lost  by 
becoming  too  ripe. 

In  Germany  the  seeds  are  deprived  of  the  chaff  and  used  as  rice, 
and  sells  for  the  same  price.  In  Asia  and  Africa  it  is  made  into  a 
meal  and  eaten  either  in  gruel,  cakes  or  bread.  It  can  be  sown  at 
any  time  from  the  first  of  April  (a  light  frost  not  injuring  it)  until 
the  first  of  July. 

If  fed  on  the  ground  the  stalks  will  remain  in  the  way  of  the 
planter  for  a  year  at  least,  but  if  plowed  under  in  the  fall  like 
broom  corn,  they  will  rot  by  spring,  and  if  lime  is  sown  on  them 
before  plowing  under,  it  will  greatly  expedite  the  process,  and  the 
soil  will  improve  every  year. 

Taking  into  consideration,  the  fact  that  it  will  yield  more  seed, 
fodder  and  stalks  on  a  greater  variety  of  soils,  with  less  labor,  in 
any  kind  of  season,  and  return  more  litter  to  the  land  than  any 
other  cereal,  and  being  a  good  food  for  man  and  beast,  it  may  be 
justly  considered  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  cereals.  And  with 
these  facts  it  is  most  surprising  that  it  is  raised  to  the  small  extent 
it  is. 

About  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  ago  it  could  be  seen  on  the 
plantation  of  almost  every  farmer  in  the  Stats.  It  gave  very  gen- 
eral satisfaction,  and  yet  it  went  out  as  suddenly  as  it  came  into 
popularity.  This  was  due  to  the  cry  that  it  impoverished  the  land. 
This  verdict  was  accepted  without  question,  and  its  culture  aban- 
doned ;  but  it  is  manifest,  from  subsequent  experiments,  that  it 
detracts  as  little  from  the  fertility  of  the  soil  as  any  other  cereal — 
much  less  than  some. 

If  the  stalks  are  left  and  only  the  grain  and  fodder  removed, 
and  the  farmer  fed  on  the  field  and  plowed  in  as  before  stated,  the 
soil  will  not  be  greatly  injured.  It  will  not  kill  cattle  like  clover, 
and  no  care  is  necessary  but  to  salt  and  water  them.  One  would 
be  surprised  how  quickly  cattle  will  fatten  on  the  bare  stalks,  and 
besides  they  will  leave  the  ground  covered  ankle  deep  with  ma- 
nured stalks. 


(  105) 

With  all  these  facts  before  us,  and  our  own  experience  in  its  cul- 
tivation, we  most  heartily  commend  its  use  to  the  citizens  of  Ten- 
nessee. There  is  no  character  of  soil,  from  the  rich  alluvial  bottoms 
of  the  Mississippi  to  the  sterile  mountain  lands  of  East  Tennessee, 
but  will  make  good  crops  of  dhouro  corn,  and  we  would  like  to  see 
it  on  every  farm. 

The  following  analysis  of  the  green  fodder  and  green  clover  will 
show  their  comparative  values  : 

Red  clover  in  blossom  : 

Water 78.0 

Organic  matter 20.3 

Ash 1.7 

Albuminoids 3.7 

Carbohydrate 8.6 

Crude  fibre  8.0 

Fat i 0.8 

Dhouro : 

Water , 77.3 

Organic  matter 21.4 

Ash 1.1 

Albuminoids. 2.9 

Carbohydrate 11.9 

Crude  fibre 6.7 

Fat 1.4 

It  has  more  heating  properties  and  more  fat  producing  principles 
than  red  clover,  but  is  not  so  rich  in  flesh  formers. 


L — (Pisum  Sativum.) 

The  pea  is  a  native  of  Southern  Europe,  and  its  cultivation  ex- 
tends into  every  State.  The  varieties  are  very  great,  and  while 
some  are  cultivated  extensively  for  table  use,  other  kinds  are  raised 
for  stock  and  for  manorial  purposes.  Our  garden  pea  was  culti- 
vated by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Peas  were  found  in  the  ancient 
Swiss  lake  dwellings.  They  were  introduced  into  England  in  the 
time  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  is  there  still  a  standard  crop.  They  are 
sown  or  drilled  in,  and  are  sometimes  even  sown  with  oats,  the  two 
being  harvested  and  fed  together.  Sheep  and  hogs  are  very  fond 
of  them,  and  especially  are  the  vines  prized  as  a  sheep  fodder. 
Analysis  shows  that  peas  contain  :  ash,  2.5 ;  albuminoids  or  flesh 


(  106  ) 

formers,  22.4 ;  carbohydrates  or  heaters,  52.3 ;  crude  fibre,  9.2  ; 
fat,  2.5  ;  water,  14.3.  The  composition  shows  them  to  be  very  nu- 
tritious, and  animals  fatten  rapidly  when  fed  with  them  liberally. 
The  pea  haulm,  when  dry,  gives,  by  analysis,  water,  14.3  ;  ash,  4  ; 
albuminoids,  6.5;  carbohydrates,  35.2;  crude  fibre,  40;  fat,  2. 
This  shows  the  haulm  to  be  three  times  as  valuable  for  feeding 
purposes  as  wheat  straw,  and  a  little  more  valuable  as  a  feed  than 
barley  straw  mixed  with  clover,  and  one-third  better  than  common, 
fodder. 

The  cow  or  field  pea  of  the  Southern  States  is  more  like  a  bean 
than  a  pea,  and  is  supposed  to  be  a  species  of  dolichos  belonging  to 
the  pulse  family  whose  species  is  undetermined.  Be  this  as  it  may, 
its  value  as  a  farm  crop  has  long  been  known.  The  ease  with 
which  it  is  cultivated,  and  its  great  value  as  a  forage  plant  and  as  a 
fertilizer,  have  given  it  a  prominent  place  in  Southern  agriculture. 
It  belongs  to  the  leguminous  or  pulse  family,  and  is  known  as  a. 
pea,  and  for  that  reason  it  will  be  treated  of  under  that  head. 

The  letter  below,  from  the  Hon.  H.  M.  Polk,  of  Hardeman 
county,  is  so  thorough  and  exhaustive  that  nothing  more  need  be 
said  on  the  subject,  only  remarking  that  no  soil  in  this  State  is  so 
poor  that  it  will  not  grow  peas  : 

BOLIVAR,  HAEDEMAN  COUNTY,  TBNN.  ) 

July  2,  1878.      / 
Commissioner  J.  B.  Killebrew : 

I  will  not  stop  to  demonstrate  what  is  manifest  to  all  that  the 
South,  from  her  sparse  population,  her  widespread  plantations,  her 
adaptation  to  and  her  predilection  for  the  cultivation  of  certain  of 
our  great  Southern  staples,  is  not  at  this  time  and  may  never  be  in 
a  condition  to  keep  up  her  arable  lands  by  animal  manures  alone, 
and  that  her  only  alternative  is  in  green  crops  turned  under  foe 
renovating  and  increasing  the  productive  capacity  of  her  foil. 

In  estimating  the  relative  manurial  values  of  green  crops  to 
bring  up  the  productive  capacity  of  our  soils,  we  measure  by  the 
amount  of  crop  produced  in  the  shortest  time,  the  elements  upon 
which  these  crops  feed,  their  capacity  for  returning  plant  food  to 
the  earth,  and  especially  by  their  leaving  more  or  less  of  those  ele- 
ments in  the  soil  which  are  necessary  to  the  production  of  the  suc- 
ceeding crop.  Nor  do  we  omit  to  estimate  their  several  capacitiea 


(  107  ) 

for  sending  their  roots  deeply  into  the  soil,  thereby  bringing  up 
and  depositing  near  the  surface  the  aliment  for  plants  which  would- 
otherwise  remain  below  the  reach  of  the  roots  of  many  of  our  most 
valuable  cereals.  For  the  accomplishment  of  these  purposes  no 
vegetable  equals  the  Southern  field  pea  and  red  clover.  In  them 
we  find  the  answer  to  that  momentous  question,  how  and  through 
what  means  can  we,  in  the  shortest  space  of  time,  bring  our  lands, 
up  to  their  highest  productive  capacities  to  meet  our  own  and  the 
varied  wants  of  society.  When  we  reflect  that  all  progress,  civili- 
zation, refinement,  culture,  prosperity  and  happiness  of  society  hang 
suspended  upon  the  scale  which  measures  out  the  feeding  capacity 
of  the  earth,  we  begin  to  appreciate  those  vegetable  productions 
promotive  of  this  desired  end.  The  trefoils  and  legumes  then  be- 
gin to  loom  up  in  their  grand  possibilities;  and  the  clover  and  the 
field  pea  assume  an  importance  not  dreamed  of  before.  Without 
them,  on  the  one  hand  we  must  descend  to  meager  harvests,  perish- 
ing stock,  fast  approaching  sterility,  hard  times  and  general  discon- 
tent. On  the  other,  by  their  powerful  aid  we  ascend  up  to  plentiful 
harvests,  fat  stock,  with  the  multiplied  advantages  resulting  there- 
from, good  living,  money  in  the  purse,  prosperity  and  contentment. 
Can  the  pea  and  clover  accomplish  all  this?  Worked  in  proper 
rotation  with  other  crops  they  most  assuredly  can.  In  the  heathen, 
but  appreciative  past,  when  gratitude  was  manifested  by  the  erec- 
tion of  temples,  and  by  solemn  worship  to  those  deities  from  whom 
temporal  blessings  were  thought  to  flow,  the  pea  and  clover  of  the 
present  day  have  been  entwined  with  the  wheat  and  fruit,  crowning 
the  brow  of  beneficent  Ceres.  Now,  these  mainsprings  of  success- 
ful agriculture  in  our  favored  land  are  but  half  appreciated,  and 
are  thrust  aside  by  the  impatient  tiller  of  the  soil  for  some  other 
crop  supposed  to  bring  in  more  immediate  money  profits,  but 
which,  in  its  continued  drafts  upon  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  must 
end  in  the  bankruptcy  as  well  as  the  ruin  of  its  possessor. 

In  a  previous  letter  to  you  I  stated  some  of  the  advantages  which 
the  field  pea  possessed  even  over  its  great  fellow- laborer,  red  clover,, 
as  a  fertilizer. 

1.  The  pea  will  thrive  upon  land  too  poor  to  grow  clover. 

2.  That  it  will  produce  a  heavy  and  rich  crop  to  be  returned  to 
the  soil  in  a  shorter  period  than  any  vegetable  fertilizer  known. 


(  108) 

3.  That  two  crops  can  be  produced  on  the  same  ground  in  one 
year,  whereas  it  requires  two  years   for  clover  to  give  a  hay  crop 
and  good  aftermath  for  turning  under.     In  this  time  four  crops  of 
peas  can  be  made. 

4.  That  the  pea  feeds  but  lightly  upon,  and  hence  leaves  largely 
in  the  soil  those  particular  elements  necessary  to  a  succeeding  grain 
crop,  and  the  pea  lay,  in  its  decay,  puts  back  largely  into  the  soil 
those  very  elements  required  for  a  vigorous  growth  of  the  cereals. 

5.  There  is  no  crop  which  is  its  equal  for  leaving  the  soil  in  the 
very  best  condition  for  a  succeeding  wheat  crop. 

6.  It  is  the  only  crop  raised  in  the  South  so  rapid  in  its  growth 
and  perfection  as  to  be  made  an  intervening  manurial  crop  between 
grain  cut  in  the  spring  and  grain  sowed  in  the  fall  upon  the  same 
ground.      And  this  alone  makes  the  pea  invaluable  to  Southern 
agriculture. 

7.  In  our  particular  latitude  it  flourishes  equally  with  clover,  and 
with  two  such  renovators  of  the  soil  (aside  from  their  value  as  food 
crops),  no  portion  of  the  earth  is  equally  blessed.     North  of  us  the 
pea  does  not  succeed ;  South,  the  clover  fails. 

8.  Its  adaptability  to  other  crops,  producing  in  the  space  between 
our  corn  rows  both  a  provision  and  a  fertilizing  crop,  with  positive 
benefit  to  the  growing  corn. 

9.  The  aid  it  gives  in  producing  cheap  beef,  pork,  milk  and 
butter.     Without  the  pea  pork  could  not  be  produced  cheaply  where 
it  costs  so  much  to  make  corn. 

10.  A  doubled  capacity  for  wintering  stock,  and  with  this  a  doubly 
enlarged  manure  heap. 

11.  The  large  plantations  of  the  South  can  only  be  restored  by 
green  crops  turned  under,  united  to  a  judicious  system  of  rotation 
looking  to  feeding  the  soil.     This  must  be  aided  by  all  the  manure 
manufactured  on  the  plantation. 

12.  The  large  addition  made  to  humus,  upon  which  the  tilth,  as 
well  as  capacity  of  the  soil  for  retaining  moisture,  so  greatly  de- 
pends. 

As  for  the  cultivation  of  the  pea,  one  can  scarcely  go  amiss. 
When  two  crops  are  intended  for  renovating,  break  the  land,  sow 
broadcast  and  harrow  in;  or  drill  in  rows  three  feet  apart,  and  plow 


(  109) 

out  when  a  few  inches  high.  When  the  pods  begin  to  ripen,  if  the 
crop  is  intended  for  manurial  purposes,  plow  under  with  large  two- 
horse  plow,  with  a  well-sharpened  rolling  coulter  attached,  or  with 
chain  passing  from  double  tree  to  beam  of  the  plow,  to  hold  the 
vines  down  for  facilitating  covering.  A  roller  passed  over  the 
vines  before  plowing  under  will  assist  the  operation.  Caustic  Hole 
should  be  sown  upon  the  vines  before  plowing  under  to  promote 
decay,  and  neutralize  the  large  amount  of  vegetable  acid  covered 
into  the  soil.  Select  the  pea  which  runs  least.  The  vines  are 
easiest  covered  into  the  soil.  They  are  the  black  bunch  pea,  and 
the  speckle  or  whippoorwill  pea. 

When  planted  in  corn  as  a  food  crop,  the  bunch  pea  ripens 
soonest;  but  the  Carolina  cow  pea,  the  clay  pea,  or  the  black  stock 
pea  are  preferable,  as  they  do  not  readily  rot  from  wet  weather,  and 
will  remain  sound  most  of  the  winter.  For  early  feeding  of  stock, 
plant  whippoorwill  pea  by  itself  in  separate  enclosure  from  corn, 
where  stock  can  be  turned  upon  whenever  desired. 

Peas  are  often  sowed  upon  the  stubble  after  small  grain  is  har- 
vested. Flush  up  the  ground  and  sow  either  broadcast  or  drill  in 
furrow  opened  with  shovel  plow,  covering  with  scooter  furrow  on 
each  side.  Block  off  or  run  over  lightly  Avith  harrow  and  board 
attached.  Again,  they  are  drilled  in  every  fourth  furrow,  when 
turning  over  the  stubble,  the  succeeding  furrow  covering  the  peas. 
When  either  of  these  last  modes  of  planting  is  adopted,  the  peas 
should  receive  one  good  plowing  out  when  they  are  from  four  to 
six  inches  high. 

When  planted  in  corn  (the  corn  should  have  been  drilled  in  rows 
five  feet  apart),  they  should  be  step-dropped  in  a  furrow  equally 
distant  from  each  corn  row,  and  covered  with  scooter  with  harrow 
or  with  block.  This  should  be  the  last  of  May  or  in  the  first  ten 
days  of  June.  The  only  work  they  receive  when  planted  in  corn, 
is  a  shovel  or  sweep  furrow  run  around  them  when  the  corn  is  being 
"laid  by,"  unless  there  is  much  grass,  when  it  becomes  necessary 
to  give  them  a  light  hoeing.  The  crop  might  be  said  to  be  made 
almost  without  work  when  planted  with  corn ;  in  fact,  it  is  often  so 
made  by  those  planters  who  sow  peas  broadcast  in  their  corn,  and 
cover  them  with  the  last  plowing  given  the  corn. 


(  no) 

There  is  much  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  proper  treatment  of 
the  vines  in  curing  them  for  winter  hay.  And  as  much  has  been 
written  upon  the  subject,  the  writer  feels  some  diffidence  in  giving 
his  own  views.  Suffice  it  to  say,  the  great  end  to  be  attained  is  to 
cure  the  vines  to  the  extent  only  of  getting  rid  of  a  part  of  the 
succulent  moisture  in  the  vine,  without  burning  up  the  leaves. 
When  exposed  to  too  much  heat,  the  leaves  fall  very  readily  from 
the  stems  and  are  lost. 

When  put  up  too  green  and  too  compactly  they  heat,  and  when 
fermentation  of  the  juices  in  the  vines,  and  unripe  pods  occur,  the 
hay  is  seriously  damaged,  if  not  completely  spoiled.  Mildewed 
hay  of  any  kind  is  but  poor  food  for  stock,  and  when  eaten  is  only 
taken  from  necessity  to  ward  off  starvation.  Some  planters  house 
their  pea  hay  in  open  sheds,  or  loosely  in  barns,  with  rails  so  fixed 
as  to  prevent  compacting.  Others  stack  in  the  open  air  around 
poles,  having  limbs  from  two  to  four  feet  long  to  keep  the  mass  of 
vines  open  to  the  air,  and  cover  the  top  with  grass. 

There  is  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  proper  manner  of  curing 
and  preserving  this  hay,  but  there  is  none  as  to  the  value  of  this 
rich  food  for  all  stock,  and  especially  for  the  milch  cow  in  increas- 
ing the  quantity  and  quality  of  her  milk. 

In  attempting  to  renovate  our  soils  by  the  aid  of  vegetable  fer- 
tilizers, we  should  not  confine  ourselves  to  one,  but  should  utilize 
all  which  are  suitable  to  our  soil  and  climate.  The  writer  has  some 
sixty  or  seventy  acres  in  clover,  and  in  much  of  this  grasses  are 
sown.  Orchard  grass  and  Herd's  grass  thrive  well  with  us,  whilst 
blue-grass  and  timothy  find  a  congenial  home  in  the  lime  lands  of 
Middle  Tennessee.  In  no  part  of  the  State  does  clover  grow  so 
well  as  in  West  Tennessee. 

In  considering  the  great  advantages  of  the  field  pea  to  the  agri- 
cultural interests  of  our  people,  I  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as 
disparaging  other  vegetable  renovators  of  the  soil.  The  field  pea 
certainly  possesses  many  advantages,  such  as  its  adaptability  to 
almost  any  soil,  and  to  many  crops  grown  with  it  at  the  same  time 
and  with  positive  benefit  to  the  crop  grown  with  k  on  the  same 
ground.  Each  row  of  corn  should  be  flanked  by  a  row  of  peas. 
Every  spot  of  ground  in  the  field  too  poor  for  corn  can  and  will 
.produce  peas.  There  is  nothing  better  to  be  sowed  in  old  ploughed 


( 111 ) 

lip  broomsedge  fields,  and  there,  whilst  the  land  is  being  fertilized, 
one  of  the  best  provision  crops  for  stock,  and  the  best  of  hay  for 
milk  cows  in  winter,  is  produced.  And  a  still  further  advantage 
possessed  by  this  valuable  legume  is  its  unequaled  capacity  for,  and 
its  unapproachable  merit  as  an  intervening  crop,  (being  both  a  ren- 
ovating and  a  food  crop),  between  small  grain  or  root  crop  in  the 
spring  and  a  grain  crop  in  the  fall.  Do  you  ask  more  of  any  vege- 
table renovator?  It  is  more  valuable  than  the  English  turnip  crop, 
and  this  crop,  by  those  enlightened  and  eminently  practical  farm- 
ers, is  estimated  annually  at  millions  of  pounds  sterling.  It  is 
doubtful  if  England  could  tide  it  over  the  next  two  years,  if  de- 
prived of  her  turnip  crop.  It  is  the  foundation  of  her  stock  and 
manure  production.  In  contrasting  the  Southern  field  pea  with 
the  English  turnip  crop,  we  begin  to  perceive  its  immense  value  to 
Southern  agriculture,  and  realize  that  too  often,  in  reaching  after 
the  so-called  money  crops,  we  have  neglected  the  best  fertilizers  (as 
well  as  food  crop),  ever  given  to  the  agricultural  world. 

In  considering  the  present  impoverished  condition  of  the  lands 
of  the  South,  we  are  forced  to  confess  it  is  the  work  of  tillage — of 
injudicious,  ruinous  tillage.  Where  husbandry  predominates  over 
tillage,  there  is  but  little  leaking  out  of  the  elements  of  fertility  in 
a  soil,  and  there  is  no  estimating  how  long  they  will  remain  to  sup- 
ply the  food  necessary  to  a  vigorous  plant  growth.  The  grasses, 
including  clover  and  peas,  are  the  grand  elements  for  preserving 
and  augmenting  these  elements  in  the  soil.  Hence  we  see  all 
countries  where  husbandry  prevails  grow  rich  in  soil,  particularly 
if  the  tilled  portion  of  the  laud  is  under  a  judicious  system  of  rota- 
tion. Now,  tillage,  or  the  simple  cultivation  of  land,  puts  nothing 
of  any  value  in  it,  but  is,  of  itself,  a  necessary  evil;  evil  because  of 
exposing  the  soil  to  a  scorching  sun,  often  reducing  it  to  a  mass  of 
lifeless  clods,  and  exposing  it  to  an  exhausting  leaching  process, 
which  takes  out  its  very  life  blood.  The  cleaner  and  long  continued 
the  culture,  the  more  the  injury  to  the  laud  from  the  destruction  of 
its  humus,  and  from  the  greatest  of  all  destructives,  leaching.  The 
injury  is  augmented  as  the  land  is  rolling  and  broken.  Hence  cot- 
ton and  tobacco  (the  first  of  which  is  not  an  exhauster  of  land,  per 
•se),  have  brought  ruin  to  the  best  acres  of  the  South,  whilst  srnadl 
grain  and  the  grasses  have  husbanded  and  increased  the  natural 
^fertility  of  the  lands  of  our  Northern  neighbors.  Lands  in  which 


(  112) 

these  too  great  staples  are  grown  should  be  level  lands,  and  in  the 
case  of  tobacco  should  receive,  (outside  the  aid  of  rotation),  a  gen- 
erous manuring.  But  if  I  have  given  the  true  reason  for  the  rapid 
decline  of  the  productive  capacity  of  the  soil  of  the  South  as  con- 
trasted with  that  of  the  Northern  States,  let  me  take  you  one  step 
further  and  show  you  that  in  the  rich  region  of  country  lying 
northwest  of  the  Ohio  river,  we  find  a  very  great  difference  in  the 
material  prosperity  of  the  farmers  there.  A  portion  of  them  are 
prosperous,  while  others  are  experiencing  all  the  evils  resulting 
from  the  comprehensive  term  hard  times.  It  is  not  difficult  to 
learn  the  cause.  The  grain-maker,  whose  whole  energies  have  been 
devoted  to  extracting  the  fertility  of  his  soil  for  many  consecutive 
years,  in  magnificent  harvests,  finds  his  crops  growing  less  and  less 
each  y«ar,  while  the  stock-raiser  is  prosperous,  having  grown  rich 
while  making  his  land  rich. 

Time  has  here  demonstrated  a  great  truth  which  agriculturists 
should  not  ignore.  Let  our  Southern  farmers  profit  by  its  inevita- 
ble teaching.  Let  us  determine  to  improve  our  destructive  farm- 
ing; give  our  lands  a  chance  to  grow  better  instead  of  depreciating 
yearly  ;  build  up  the  waste  places ;  infuse  new  life  into  our  Southern 
land,  beautiful  still  in  her  decline,  and  endeared  the  more  as  we 
see  her  slowly  sinking  under  the  drain  mercilessly  kept  open  by 
her  own  children,  in  the  veins  through  which  her  priceless  life 
blood  flows. 

Since  writing  the  above,  I  have  accidentally  found  an  old  docu- 
ment upon  "  Southern  Agricultural  Exhaustion  and  its  Remedy," 
from  the  able  pen  of  the  late  Judge  Ruffin,  of  Virginia.  Al- 
though this  article  was  not  written  specially  upon  the  merits  of  the 
field  pea  as  a  renovator  of  worn  lands,  yet  it  shows  its  great  value 
to  the  agriculture  of  the  South  so  much  more  forcibly  than  any- 
thing I  can  say  in  advocating  its  claims,  that  I  take  the  liberty  of 
quoting  the  following  paragraphs  entire,  and  with  them  will  close 
my  letter,  already  too  long  : 

"  At  the  risk  of  uttering  what  may  be  deemed  trite  or  superfluous 
to  many,  I  beg  leave  to  state  concisely  the  fundamental  laws,  as  I 
conceive  them  to  be,  of  supply  and  exhaustion  of  fertilizing  matters 
to  soils  and  aliment  to  plants. 

"  All  vegetable  growth  is  supported,  for  a  small  part,  by  the 
alimentary  principles  in  the  soil,  (or  by  what  we  understand  as  its. 


(  113) 

fertility),  and  partly,  and  for  much  the  larger  portion,  by  matters 
supplied,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  from  the  atmosphere.  More 
than  nine-tenths,  usually,  of  the  substance  of  every  plant  is  com- 
posed of  the  same  four  elements,  three  of  which — oxygen,  nitro- 
gen and  carbon — compose  the  whole  atmosphere;  the  fourth — 
hydrogen — is  one  of  the  constituent  parts  of  water;  and,  also,  as  a 
part  of  the  dissolved  water,  hydrogen  is  always  present  in  the 
atmosphere,  and  in  a  great  quantity.  Thus,  all  these  principal 
elements  of  plants  are  superabundant,  and  always  surrounding 
every  growing  plant;  and  from  the  atmosphere  (or  through  the 
water  in  the  soil),  very  much  the  larger  portion  of  these  joint  sup- 
plies is  furnished  to  plants;  and  so  it  is  of  each  particular  element, 
except  nitrogen,  much  the  smallest  ingredient,  and  yet  the  richest 
and  most  important  of  all  organic  manuring  substances  and  of  all 
plants.  This,  for  the  greater  part,  if  not  for  all  of  its  small  share 
in  plants,  it  seems,  is  not  generally  derived,  even  partially,  froia 
the  air,  though  so  abundant  therein,  but  from  the  soil,  or  from 
organic  manures  given  to  the  soil. 

u  But,  though  bountiful  nature  has  offered  these  chief  alimentary 
principles  and  ingredients  of  vegetable  growth  in  as  inexhaustible 
profusion  as  the  atmosphere  itself  which  they  compose,  still,  their 
availability  and  beneficial  use  for  plants  are  limited  in  some  measure 
to  man's  labors  and  care  to  secure  their  benefits.  Thus,  for  illus- 
tration, suppose  the  material  of  food  for  plants  furnished  by  the 
atmosphere  to  be  three- fourths  of  all  received,  and  that  one-fourth 
only  of  the  growth  of  any  crop  is  derived  from  the  soil  and  its 
fertility ;  still,  a  strict  proportion  between  the  amount  of  supplies 
from  these  two  different  sources  does  not  the  less  exist.  If  the 
cultivator's  land  at  one  time,  from  its  natural  or  acquired  fertility, 
affords  to  the  growing  crop  alimentary  principles  of  value  to  be 
designated  as  five,  there  will  be  added  thereto  other  alimentary 
parts,  equal  to  fifteen  in  value  from  the  atmosphere.  The  crop  will 
be  made  up  of,  and  will  contain,  the  whole  of  twenty  parts,  of 
which  five  only  were  derived  from  and  served  to  reduce  by  so  much 
the  fertility  of  the  soil.  '  These  proportions  are  stated  merely  for 
illustration,  and,  of  course,  are  inaccurate;  but  the  theory  or  prin- 
ciple is  correct,  and  the  law  of  fertilization  and  exhaustion  thence 
deduced  is  as  certainly  sound.  Then,  upon  these  premises,  there 
is  taken  from  the  land,  for  the  support  of  the  crop,  but  one-fodrth 
8 


(  114) 

of  the  aliment  derived  from  all  sources  for  that  purpose.  And,  if 
no  other  causes  of  destruction  of  fertility  were  in  operation,  one 
green  or  manuring  crop  (wholly  given  to  the  land,  and  wholly  used 
as  manure),  would  supply  to  the  field  as  much  alimentary  or  fer- 
tilizing matter  as  would  be  drawn  thence  by  three  other  crops 
removed  for  consumption  or  sale.  But  in  practice  there  are  usu- 
ally at  work  important  agencies  for  destruction  of  fertility,  besides 
the  mere  supply  of  aliment  to  growing  crops.  Such  agencies  are 
the  washing  off  of  soluble  parts,  and  even  the  soil  itself,  by  heavy 
rains;  the  hastening  of  the  decomposition  and  waste  of  organic 
matter  by  frequent  tillage  processes  and  changes  of  exposure;  and 
ploughing  or  other  working  of  land  when  too  wet,  either  from 
rain  or  want  of  drainage.  Also,  a  cover  of  weeds  left  to  rot  on 
the  surface,  or  any  crop  ploughed  under,  green  or  dry,  as  manure, 
is  subject  to  more  or  less  waste  of  its  alimentary  principles  in  the 
course  of  the  ensuing  decomposition.  Therefore,  it  is  nearer  the 
facts  that  two  years'  crops  or  culture,  for  market  or  removal,  would 
require  one  year's  growth  of  some  manuring  crop  to  replace,  and 
to  maintain  undiminished  or  increasing  the  productive  power  of 
the  field.  The  poorest,  and  also  the  cheapest,  of  such  manuring 
crops  will  be  the  natural  or  "volunteer"  growth  of  weeds  on  lands 
cultivated,  and  not  grazed;  and  the  best  of  all  will  be  furnished  in 
the  whole  product  of  a  broadcast  sown  and  entire  crop  of  your 
own  most  fertilizing  and  valuable  field  peas. 

"Thus,  of  each  manuring  crop  (as  of  all  others),  or  of  the  fer- 
tilizing matter  thus  given  to  the  land,  the  cultivator  has  contributed 
but  five  parts  to  the  land,  or  its  previous  manuring,  and  the  atmos- 
phere has  supplied  fifteen  parts.  If,  then,  the  cultivator,  by  still 
more  increasing  his  own  contributions,  will  give  ten  parts  of  ali- 
mentary matter  to  the  land  and  crop,  there  will  be  added  thereto 
from  the  atmosphere  in  the  same  threefold  proportion,  or  thirty 
parts,  and  the  whole  new  productive  power  will  be  equal  to  forty. 
And  if  the  soil  is  fitted  by  its  natural  constitution,  or  the  artificial 
change  induced  by  calcareous  or  other  applications,  to  fix  and  re- 
tain this  double  supply  of  organic  matter,  the  land  will  not  only 
be  made,  but  will  remain  of  as  much  increased  fertility,  under  the 
subsequent  like  course  of  receiving  one  year's  product  for  manure 
for  every  two  other  crops  removed.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  if 
more  exhausting  culture  had  been  allowed,  instead  of  either  in- 


creased  or  maintained  production,  or  if  the  crops  take  away  more 
organic  matter  than  nature's  three-fold  con tributions  wTTPrepIace^ 
~th"en~a  downward  progress  must  begin,  and  will  proceed,  whether 
slowly  or  quickly,  to  extreme  poverty  of  the  land,  its  profitless 
cultivation  and  final  abandonment.  In  this,  the  more  usual  can1, 
the  cultivator's  contributions  of  aliment  (obtained  from  the  soil,) 
are  reduced  from  the  former  value,  designated  as  five,  first  to  four, 
and  next  successively  to  three,  two,  and  finally  less  than  one;  and 
nature  keeps  equal  pace  in  reducing  her  proportional  supplies  from 
fifteen  first  to  twelve,  and  so  on  to  nine  and  six,  and  less  than  three 
parts.  So  the  strongest  inducement  is  offered  to  enrich,  rather 
than  exhaust,  the  soil ;  for  whatever  amount  of  fertility  the  culti- 
vator shall  bestow,  or  whatever  abstraction  from  a  previous  rate  of 
supply  he  shall  make,  either  the  gain  or  the  loss  will  be  tripled  in 
the  account  of  supplies  from  the  atmosphere  furnished  or  withheld 
by  nature. 

"  In  another  and  more  practical  point  of  view,  the  loss  incurred 
by  exhausting  may  be  plainly  exhibited.  According  to  my  views, 
soils  supposed  to  be  properly  constituted  as  to  mineral  ingredients 
do  not  demand,  for  the  maintaining  and  increasing  of  their  rate  of 
production,  more  than  the  resting,  or  the  growth  of  two  years  in 
every  five,  mainly  to  be  left  on  the  land  as  manure." 

"These  are  the  proportions  of  the  five-field  rotation,  now  exten- 
sively used  on  the  most  improving  parts  of  Virginia.  And  one  of 
these  two  years  the  field  is  grazed,  so  that  parts  of  its  growth  of 
grass  are  consumed,  instead  of  all  remaining  on  the  field  for  ma- 
nure. To  meet  the  same  demands,  the  more  Southern  planter 
might  leave  his  field  to  be  covered  by  its  growth  of  weeds  (or 
natural  grasses),  one  year,  (and  also  to  be  grazed),  and  a  broadcast 
crop  of  pea- vines  to  he-ploughed  under  in  another,  for  every  three 
crops  of  grain  and  cotton.  But  the  ready  answer  to  this,  (and  I 
have  heard  it  many  times),  is,  "  what!  lose  two  crops  in  every  five 
years  ?  I  cannot  afford  to  lose  even  one."  It  may  be  that  the 
planter  is  so  diligent  and  careful  in  collecting  materials  for  pre- 
pared manure  that  he  can  extend  a  thin  and  poor  application,  and. 
in  the  drills  only,  over  nearly  half  his  cotton  field ;  and  perhaps  he 
persuades  himself  that  this  application  will  obviate  the  necessity 
for  rest  and  manuring  crops  to  the  land. 


(  116  ) 

"  The  result  will  not  fulfill  his  expectation.  But  even  if  it  could, 
the  manuring  thus  given  directly  by  the  labor  of  the  planter  is 
more  costly  than  if  he  would  allow  time  and  opportunity  for  nature 
to  help  to  manure  for  him ;  whether  alone,  or  still  better  if  aided 
by  preparing  for  and  sowing  the  native  pea,  to  the  production  of 
which  your  climate  is  so  eminently  favorable.  All  the  accumula- 
tions of  leaves  raked  from  the  poor  pine  forest,  with  the  slight  ad- 
ditional value  which  may  be  derived  from  the  otherwise  profitless 
maintenance  of  poor  cattle,  will  supply  less  of  food  to  plants,  and 
at  greater  cost,  than  would  be  furnished  by  an  unmixed  growth  of 
peas,  all  left  to  serve  as  manure." 

"The  native  or  Southern  pea,  (as  it  ought  to  be  called),  of  such 
general  and  extensive  culture  in  this  and  other  Southern  States,  is 
the  most  valuable  for  manuring  crops,  and  also  offers  peculiar  and 
great  advantages  as  a  rotation  crop.  The  seeds  (in  common  with 
other  peas  and  beans),  are  more  nutritious,  as  food  for  man  and 
beast,  than  any  of  the  cereal  grains.  The  other  parts  of  the  plant 
furnish  the  best  and  most  palatable  provender  for  beasts.  They 
may  be  so  well  made  in  your  climate,  as  a  secondary  growth  under 
oorn,  that  it  is  never  allowed  to  be  a  primary  crop,  or  to  have  en- 
tire possession  of  the  land.  It  will  grow  well  broadcast,  and  either 
in  that  way,  or  still  better  if  tilled ;  and  is  of  an  admirable  and 
cleansing  growth.  It  is  even  better  than  clover  as  a  preparing  and 
manuring  crop  for  wheat.  In  one  or  other  of  the  various  mode* 
in  which  the  pea  crop  may  be  produced,  it  may  be  made  to  suit 
well  in  a  rotation  with  any  other  crops.  Though  for  a  long  time 
I  had  believed  in  some  of  the  great  advantages  of  the  pea- crop, 
and  had  even  commenced  its  cultivation  as  a  manuring  crop,  and 
on  a  large  scale,  it  was  not  until  I  afterwards  saw  the  culture, 
growth,  and  uses  in  South  Carolina,  that  I  learned  to  estimate  its 
value  properly,  and  perhaps  more  fully  than  is  done  by  any  who, 
in  this  State,  avail  themselves  so  largely  of  some-  of  its  benefits. 
Since,  I  have  made  this  crop  a  most  important  member  of  my 
rotation,  its  culture,  as  a  manuring  crop  has  now  become  general  in 
my  neighborhood,  and  is  rapidly  extending  to  more  distant  plaoes. 
If  all  the  advantages  offered  by  this  crop  were  fully  appreciated 
and  availed  of,  the  possession  of  this  plant  in  your  climate  would 
be  one  of  the  greatest  agricultural  blessings  of  this  and  the  more 
Southern  States.  For  my  individual  share  of  this  benefit,  stinted 


as  it  is  by  our  colder  climate,  I  estimate  it  as  adding,  at   least,  one 
thousand  bushels  of  wheat  annually  to  my  crop." 
I  can  add  nothing  to  what  is  said  above. 

I  am,  Colonel,  very  respectfully,  yours,  etc. 

H.  M.  POLK. 
Bolivar,  Hardeman  county,  Tennessee. 


CHINESE  SUGAR  CORN—  ( Sorghum  nigrum.) 

In  1854  some  insignificant  pack- 
ages of  seeds  were  sent  from  the 
then  patent  office,  bearing  this  in- 
scription : 

"SUGAR  MILLET. 

(Sorgho  Sucre.) 

(Good  for  fodder,  greeu  or  dry,  and  for 
making  sugar.") 

Who  could  have  foreseen,  from 
these  few  characters,  that  a  plant 
1  was  then  being  added  to  this  coun- 
try more  important  than  any  since 
the  discovery  of  America  and  the 
discovery  to  Europeans,  of  Indian 
corn? 

In  the  midst  of  the  great  success 
of  the  New  World  in  agricultural 
products,  the  Old  World  sent  this 
boon  to  her  offspring  as  a  token  of 
good  will. 

Within  a  year  or  two  sugar  has 
been  made  from  it  of  good  quality,  and  during  a  recent  visit  to  the 
Agricultural  Department  at  Washington,  I  saw  specimens  of  sugar 
manufactured  from  a  new  variety  as  excellent  in  flavor  and  color 
as  the  best  New  Orleans  sugar.  I  distributed  some  of  the  seeds  of 
this  new  variety,  and  I  confidently  predict  that  Tennessee  will,  in 
ten  years,  make  sugar  enough  for  her  own  consumption  at  a  cost 
less  than  five  cents  per  pound. 


(  118) 

HISTORY. 

In  the  fall  of  1853,  Dr.  Jay  Browne  was  sent  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  to  Europe  to  gather  seeds  for  distribution 
from  the  office.  He  saw  a  small  patch  of  sorghum  at  Verrieres, 
near  Paris,  and  being  struck  with  its  resemblance  to  corn,  thought 
it  would  be  an  accession  to  our  forage  crops,  and  possibly  might  be 
used  as  a  sugar  plant. 

Four  years  before,  M.  de  Montigny  had  sent  the  seed  from  the 
north  of  China  to  the  Geographical  Society  of  Paris,  in  a  package 
of  many  different  kinds  of  seeds.  They  were  planted,  and  but  one 
single  sorghum  seed  germinated.  The  product  of  this  plant  was 
distributed,  and  the  next  year,  so  great  was  the  demand,  a  gardner 
of  Paris  sold  his  entire  crop  to  Vilmoriu,  Audrieux  &  Co.,  of 
Paris,  for  a  franc  a  seed.  Through  them  it  was  sent  over  the  whole 
of  Europe  and  America,  for  it  was  on  their  farm  Mr.  Browne  saw 
it  growing. 

In  1850,  Mr.  Leonard  Wray,  of  the  East  Indies,  a  practical 
sugar  planter,  on  a  visit  to  Kaffir- land,  found  the  imphee,  another 
species  of  sugar  cane,  growing  around  the  huts  of  the  natives, 
which  they  cultivated  for  its  chewing  qualities.  On  examination, 
he  discovered  its  rich  saccharine  character,  and  was  satisfied  of  its 
value.  He  therefore  brought  it  with  him  to  England  and  had  it 
planted  there,  as  well  as  in  France  and  Belgium.  He  memorial- 
ized the  French  minister  of  war,  and  also  Mr.  Buchanan,  who  was 
minister  in  England  at  that  time.  He  afterwards  cultivated  it  in 
the  West  Indies,  Brazil,  the  Mauritius,  Australia,  Turkey,  Egypt 
and  in  this  country. 

The  Kaffirs  cultivated  sixteen  varieties  that  differed  in  the 
amount  of  saccharine  principle,  as  well  as  in  the  time  required  to 
mature.  In  1856  Mr.  Wray  exhibited  sugar,  molasses,  alcohol, 
plants  and  seeds  of  the  imphee  at  the  Paris  Exposition,  and  not 
only  obtained  a  silver  medal,  but  a  grant  of  twenty-five  hundred 
acres  of  land  in  Algiers  was  made  him  by  the  French  Government 
that  he  might  prosecute  his  researches.  During  this  same  year, 
Orange  Judd,  of  New  York,  distributed  25,000  packages  of  seed  to 
his  subscribers,  spreading  them  throughout  the  country.  In  1857 
Mr.  Wray  brought  to  the  United  States  the  seeds  of  several  varie- 
ties of  imphee.  So  then,  when  Mr.  Browne  obtained  the  seeds  it 
was  really  in  its  initial  state  of  cultivation  in  France.  It  had  been 


(  119) 

grown  in  China  from  time  immemorial,  but  with  the  exclusiveness 
of  that  people,  its  very  existence  had  been  jealously  guarded  from 
the  world. 

The  same,  or  a  similar  plant  had  been  cultivated  in  Europe  at 
different  periods  during  the  dark  ages,  but  the  want  of  intercourse 
and  the  oppressive  feudal  system  of  that  day  had  repressed  any  ad- 
vancement in  science  and  arts,  as  well  as  in  agriculture. 

The  elder  Pliny,  in  the  first  century,  describes  a  plant  under  the 
name  of  milidum  quod  ex  India  in  Italium  invectum  nigro  colors,  (a 
millet  of  dark  color  brought  from  India  to  Italy).  Millium  means 
thousands,  and  refers  to  the  number  of  seed  on  a  plant.  Fuchius 
describes,  in  1512,  a  plant  cultivated  in  Belgium  called  sorgi.  In 
1552,  Fragus  says,  in  a  work  on  botany,  a  panicum  plinii  was  culti- 
vated in  Germany,  and  accurately  describes  this  plant.  In  1591, 
Gosner  names  this  same  plant  sorghum.  In  Italy  in  1595,  in  his 
commentaries  on  Dioscorides,  Matthioli  calls  it  indieum  millium,  or 
Indian  millet.  Gerard,  an  English  writer,  in  1597,  describes  this 
and  other  varieties  of  sorghum  as  dhouro  corn,  broom  corn  and 
chocolate  corn. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  this  plant,  however  new  to  us,  was  cultivated 
in  England,  Belgium  and  Italy  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  that 
it  was  known  to  Pliny  in  the  first  century.  Its  uses  were  described 
as  so  various  that  it  is  supposed  all  the  varieties  of  sorghum  were 
confounded  by  these  different  authors.  It  was  recommended  as 
fodder  for  stock,  food  for  poultry  and  hogs,  and  for  a  syrup ;  while 
the  Italians  called  it  melica  from  its  resemblance  to  honey.  It  was 
described  as  having  seeds,  various  in  color,  from  rufous  to  black, 
from  white  to  yellow  and  red,  and  they  were  said  to  make  an  ex- 
cellent bread.  The  bread  had  a  pinkish  tinge,  being  colored  by 
the  husks,  which  could  not  be  entirely  separated  from  the  seed. 
Through  the  caravans  of  the  Syrian  desert,  sorghum  was  carried 
from  Asia  to  Africa,  and  there,  under  the  changes  of  climate,  soil 
and  moisture,  new  varieties  originated,  and  we  have  the  imphee 
canes. 

Linnaeus  calls  it  holcus  saccaratum,  and  the  dhouro  corn  he  calls 
Jiolcus  sorghum.  But  Persoon,  and  others  since,  have  separated  the 
two,  arid  applied  to  the  sugar  cane  the  general  name  sorghum,  and 
its  specific  name  nigrum  from  the  color  of  its  seeds.  These  plants 
are  all  called  sorghum  in  the  East  Indies. 


(  120  ) 

VAEIETIES. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  cane,  and  while  the  description  at 
the  head  of  the  article  will  give  the  generic  characters,  it  will  not 
the  specific  differences  of  the  various  kinds.  But  it  is  not  necessary 
to  give  the  botanic  description  of  each  variety. 

FIRST  EACE — EUSORGHTJM. 
True  Chinese  Sugar  Cane,  (already  described). 

SECOND  RACE — IMPHEE. 

1.  Proacocia,  (early  Sorgo).  2.  Oui-se-a-na,  (Otaheitan).  3. 
White  Imphee,  (Nee-a-ga-na).  4.  Black  Imphee,  (Nigerrima).  5- 
Red  Imphee,  (Cerasina,  cherry  red)  Shlagoo-va.  6.  Liberia,  (Li- 
berian). 

In  Tennessee  the  nomenclature  is  shortened  by  all  being  called 
"  red"  or  "  black,"  and  "  Chinese"  or  "  African." 

Sorghum,  submitted  to  a  pressure  often  tons,  will  yield  about  60 
per  cent  of  juice,  leaving  40  per  cent  of  woody  fibre,  gum,  juices, 
etc.  Of  this  60  per  cent  about  10  per  cent  is  sugar,  both  cane  and 
grape,  or,  if  not  reduced  to  sugar,  it  will  make  about  25  per  cent  of 
syrup,  or  15  per  cent  of  the  expressed  juice. 

However,  in  fact,  this  amount  varies  very  much,  according  to  the 
soil  on  which  it  is  raised.  On  rich  bottom  land,  where  the  cane 
grows  to  be  very  tall  and  large,  there  is  more  water  and  less  sugar 
in  the  juice,  while  on  poor,  sandy,  dry  land  the  proportion  is  much 
greater.  In  some  specimens  of  syrup,  when  boiled  down  thick  and 
allowed  to  stand,  crystals  of  sugar  will  form  all  through  it.  These 
crystals  are  in  the  form  of  a  modified  rhombic  prism.  But  in  the 
generality  of  specimens,  from  the  presence  of  an  acid,  the  cane 
sugar  is  converted  into  glucose  and  no  manipulation  is  sufficient  to 
cause  it  to  crystalize.  A  few  years  ago,  at  one  of  the  expositions 
held  in  the  city  of  Nashville,  a  jar  of  this  sugar  was  on  exhibition, 
and  there  is  a  fair  specimen  now  in  the  cabinet  of  this  Bureau,  and, 
as  before  stated,  some  excellent  specimens  at  "Washington.  Should* 
an  early  and  cheap  means  be  devised  to  secure  rapid  crystalization 
the  result  will  be  to  bring  down  the  price  of  sugar.  Molasses, 
which  sold  at  one  dollar  per  gallon,  was  brought,  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  sorghum  syrup,  down  to  twenty-five  and  thirty  cents. 
There  is  so  little  difference  between  this  grape  and  cane  sugar  that 


it  is  to  be  hoped  some  process  may  yet  be  invented  by  which  the 
syrup  can  be  crystalized  at  will.  The  constituents  are  the  same, 
only  having  one  equivalent  more  ot  hydrogen  and  oxygen  than 
carbon.  It  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  presence  of  some  acid,  as 
cane  sugar  can  be  converted  into  glucose  by  the  addition  of  acids, 
or  by  passing  a  stream  of  air  through  the  boiling  syrup.  In  this 
inventive  age  the  mind  of  man  has  only  to  be  turned  to  this  subject 
and  it  will  be  done. 

The  Imphee  cane,  as  a  rule,  produces  more  crystals  in  the  syrup 
than  the  Chinese,  consequently  the  latter  is  more  universally  culti- 
vated, being  better  suited  to  making  syrup.  Besides,  the  African 
or  Imphee  cane  grows  much  taller  and  is  easily  blown  down  by 
high  winds,  making  a  tangled  mass  in  the  field  very  difficult  ta 
harvest. 

CULTIVATION    AND    HARVESTING. 

Sorghum  will  grow  and  thrive,  like  dhouro,  on  the  poorest  soils. 
When  the  earth  is  parched  up  by  drought  it  maintains  its  fresh, 
green  color,  and  continues  to  grow.  However,  it  will  thrive  better 
on  rich  land,  and,  though  the  juice  may  have  more  water,  it  will 
make  far  more  syrup.  The  roots  of  sorghum  penetrate  the  soil 
farther  than  any  other  cereal,  and  consequently  deep  plowing  is 
absolutely  requisite  for  a  full  crop.  Not  only  should  the  plow,  but 
the  subsoiler  should  also  be  applied.  On  good  land  it  grows  to  a 
height  of  fifteen  or  eighteen  feet,  on  poor,  badly  prepared  land  it 
stops  at  five  or  six  feet.  Because  it  will  grow  on  poorer  land  than 
other  plants  is  no  evidence  that  poor  land  is  better  for  it.  There- 
fore let  the  land  be  in  good  heat  and  the  increased  quantity  of 
syrup  will  well  repay  the  labor.  On  gravelly  or  sandy  subsoils^ 
the  roots  will  go  four  or  five  feet  deep,  and  on  this  kind  of  land,  if 
rich,  it  will  make  far  more  syrup  and  of  a  better  quality. 

It  should  be  planted  in  drills  three  feet  apart,  and  in  four  or  five 
days  the  young  tender  stalks  will  come  up,  looking  very  much  like 
grass.  But  it  will  soon  begin  to  grow  rapidly,  and  outstrip  grass 
or  weeds.  When  three  or  four  inches  high  it  should  be  chopped 
and  thinned  out,  and  but  little  more  work  need  be  done  to  it.  Two 
plowings  are  all  it  should  receive,  as  the  roots  penetrate  the  ground 
so  thickly  the  plant  would  receive  more  injury  than  benefit  if 
plowed  after  it  is  three  or  four  feet  high.  Besides,  by  that  time 


(122) 

the  ground  is  so  shaded  by  lateral  branches  and  suckers  the  weeds 
will  effect  no  material  injury. 

Much  difference  of  opinion  existed  at  first,  and  still  exists,  as 
to  the  best  time  of  cutting.  Some  assert  when  the  seeds  are  in 
the  milky  state,  others  when  they  are  fully  matured,  is  the  most 
favorable  time.  A  slight  degree  of  frost  does  not  injure  it,  and 
this  opinion  has  caused  the  loss  of  many  a  crop,  for,  with  our  usual 
procrastination,  this  belief  is  allowed  to  influence  many  to  let  it 
stand  until  a  severe  frost  comes,  when  the  cane  is  rendered  worth- 
less. Whenever  it,  freezes,  fermentation  ensues,  and  it  will  not 
make  syrup  at  all,  or,  if  it  does,  it  is  black  and  has  a  disagreeable 
odor.  But  repeated  experiments  have  demonstrated  the  fact  that 
early  cut  cane  makes  the  best  and  cleanest  molasses.  Still,  if  the 
farmer  has  a  large  crop,  he  will  have  an  opportunity  of  testing  it 
in  all  stages,  for  it  will  take  a  long  time  to  express  the  juice  of  a 
large  crop  and  boil  it  down. 

"When  the  seeds  are  in  the  milky  state,  let  the  stripping  and  boil- 
ing begin.  It  is  not  our  purpose  to  go  into  a  lengthy  detail  of 
syrup  making,  it  being  rather  our  province  to  treat  of  sorghum 
as  a  cattle  food  than  otherwise,  and  we  will  only  give  a  general 
description.  Besides,  since  the  invention  of  cane  mills  and  evapo- 
rators, there  is  hardly  a  man  in  the  State  who  is  not  thoroughly 
conversant  with  the  process.  One  thing  every  one  should  bear  in 
mind,  and  that  is,  do  not  be  too  particular  to  press  every  particle 
of  juice  from  the  stalk.  The  first  pressure,  well  applied,  will  get, 
generally  speaking,  all  the  saccharine  principles,  the  second  pres- 
sure only  sending  out  gums,  cellulose  and  stfme  coloring  matters. 
The  syrup  would  be  clearer  and  sweeter  if  the  outer  rind  of  the 
stalk  could  be  stripped  off  and  only  the  pith  submitted  to  pressure. 
Let  the  juice  be  strained  in  a  blanket,  and  boiled  as  rapidly  as 
possible  in  a  shallow  pan.  This  is  all  that  is  requisite.  Some  use 
the  continuous,  some  the  interrupted  pans.  The  former  are  becom- 
ing more  generally  used,  that  is,  pans  that  receive  the  raw  juice  at 
one  side  and  discharge  the  molasses  at  the  other.  Sometimes  it 
happens  that  the  syrup  when  boiled  to  a  sufficent  consistency  does 
crystalize  without  any  known  cause.  When  it  is  discovered  to-do 
so,  the  farmer  might  take  advantage  of  this  accident  and  very  easily 
make  his  own  sugar.  And  to  test  its  capacity  to  form  crystals,  a 
small  quantity  at  various  times  of  evaporating  might  be  boiled  to 


(  123  ) 

a  point  lower  and  thicker  than  for  syrup  and  set  aside  to  stand  two, 
or  four  days.  If  crystals  are  thrown  down  in  the  vessel  there  is 
then  reason  to  believe  more  of  it  will  do  so.  He  can,  therefore, 
should  he  desire  to  make  his  own  sugar,  boil  it  to  the  proper  con- 
sistency, or  until  the  steam  comes  up  through  the  syrup  with  a 
burst,  and  set  it  off  in  tubs  to  granulate.  Sometimes,  however,  this 
does  not  take  place  for  a  few  weeks,  or  even  months.  In  order  to 
expedite  the  process,  it  should  be  kept  in  a  close,  warm  room, 
heated  up  to,  at  least,  90  degrees.  This  can  be  easily  done  by  hav- 
ing the  tul.s  or  barrels  of  syrup  in  a  room  made  tight,  and  heated 
by  a  stove.  With  but  little  replenishing  of  wood  the  stove  may  be 
kept  hot  continuously.  When  the  granulation  has  taken  pla^e  fully 
let  the  whole  mass,  molasses  and  all,  be  put  into  stout  cloth  bags 
and  hung  up  to  drain.  Or  it  can  be  put  into  conical  tin  moulds, 
shaped  like  a  sugar  loaf,  with  an  opening  at  the  bottom  covered  by 
a  wire  sieve,  such  as  is  used  for  straining  milk.  The  bags,  how- 
ever, are  cheaper  and  equally  as  effective.  Here  let  it  remain  for 
a  sufficient  number  of  days,  to  allow  all  the  molasses  to  pass  off. 
It  can  then  be  taken  down  and  mixed  with  a  very  small  quantity 
of  water  and  redrained,  and  this  application  of  water  can  be  repeat- 
ed until  the  sugar  becomes  as  white  as  desired.  The  water  can 
then  be  reduced  by  evaporation,  to  the  desired  consistency  of  mo- 


In  the  manufacture  of  the  Southern  cane  sugar,  lime-water, 
(white  wash)  is  used  to  clarif/  it.  At  first  this  was  used  in  sorghum 
but  it  was  soon  found  that  it  blackened  the  syrup  so  much  that  no 
after  treatment  would  restore  its  clear  color.  Besides,  it  gave  it  a 
a  very  disagreeable  alkaline  taste.  Afterwards  the  white  of  eggs 
was  used,  which  did  very  well,  but  further  manufacture  brought 
out  the  discovery  that  it  contained  so  much  gum  it  would  coagulate 
and  clarify  itself  better  without  the  addition  of  anything  with  it. 
Skimming  easily  removes  all  impurities  that  arise  upon  the  sur- 
face. 

The  amount  of  syrup  procured  from  an  acre  of  ground  is  as 
various  as  are  the  methods  of  cultivation  and  characters  of  the  soil. 
From  forty  to  two  hundred  gallons  may  be  considered  the  range, 
and  when  it  is  considered  that  a  cultivator  can  take  his  choice  be- 
tween the  two  quantities,  it  may  seem  that  there  is  cause  for  emula- 
tion. 


(  124  ) 

But  it  is  rather  as  a  forage  crop  that  this  plant  properly  belong* 
in  this  treatise.  Its  uses  are  almost  as  various  as  Indian  corn  it- 
self. As  has  been  already  stated,  it  is  greedily  eaten  in  all  stages 
by  stock  of  every  kind.  The  seeds  are  abundant,  and  one  acre  of 
good  corn  will  make  from  forty  to  sixty  bushels  of  seed.  These 
can  be  cut  from  the  corn  and  stored  for  use,  taking  care  to  spread 
the  heads  until  they  dry,  when  they  make  good  food  for  cattle,, 
horses,  sheep,  hogs  and  poultry.  When  ground  into  flour  they 
make  good  bread.  Both  the  seeds  and  the  expressed  juice  have 
been  extensively  used  in  distillation,  large  quantities  of  alcohol  and 
sorghum  brandy  being  annually  made  from  them.  During  the  war 
it  formed  almost  the  only  resource  of  the  South  for  whisky,  all 
grains  being  in  too  much  demand  for  distillers  to  use  them. 

But  probably  it  possesses  more  good  qualities  as  a  green  soiling 
plant  than  any  other  one.  Let  it  be  sown  either  broadcast  or 
thickly  drilled  with  a  seed  drill  very  early  in  the  spring,  with 
about  one  bushel  of  seed  to  the  acre,  and  there  is  no  end  to  its  feed- 
ing capacity.  It  will  yield  from  twenty  to  thirty  tons  of  green 
fodder  to  the  acre,  that,  when  dry,  will  make  three  or  four  tons  of 
the  sweetest  and  best  of  hay,  and  stock  will  eat  up  the  last  vestige 
of  it.  The  proper  time  of  cutting  is  when  the  heads  begin  ta 
flower,  when  it  can  be  cut  and  bundled  as  corn  fodder,  or  left 
spread  on  the  ground,  if  the  weather  is  good,  for  several  days,  and 
it  will  dry  enough  to  store,  but  not  in  too  large  a  bulk.  Its  stems 
are  so  succulent  that  it  will  not  cure  quickly,  the  juices  in  it,  how- 
ever, will  sugar  directly,  and  then  it  will  keep  as  well  as  timothy.. 
It  possesses  fattening  qualities  in  an  eminent  degree,  and  nothing 
like  it  was  ever  used  for  improving  a  drove  of  mules.  But  if  the 
farmer  has  a  drove  of  mules  or  herd  of  cattle  or  milch  cows,  it  can 
be  fed  to  them  from  the  time  it  is  two  feet  high,  and  they  will  eat 
it  with  avidity.  By  the  time  a  field  is  gone  over,  it  will  be  ready 
to  cut  again,  as  the  root  freely  throws  up  new  suckers,  and  will- 
continue  to  do  so  until  stopped  by  the  frost.  Thus,  as  many  as 
three  crops  can  be  cut  before  it  is  destroyed  by  the  cold.  Or,  if  it 
is  not  wanted  as  green  forage,  it  can  be  cut  at  blossoming,  at  least 
twice,  without  resowing,  and  the  second  crop  will  be  as  good  as  the 
first.  A  mule  raiser  in  Williamson  county  has  several  large  racks, 
and  as  soon  as  the  hay  is  in  condition  to  cut,  he  draws  a  load  to 
each  rack  daily,  and  the  mules  are  allowed  to  go  to  it  ad  libitum,  so 


the  farmer  has  only  to  give  them  grain  to  complete  the  process  of  fat- 
tening. 

MANUFACTURE    OF    SUGAR    FROM    SORGHUM. 

When  sorghum  was  first  introduced  to  the  people  of  the  United 
States  they  were  informed  it  would  not  only  make  syrup,  but  that 
the  Chinese  made  all  their  sugar  from  it.  But  little  attention  was 
given  this  product  of  cane  however,  and  the  cultivators  were  con- 
tent to  make  it  into  syrup,  as  this  alone  made  it  of  immense  value 
to  the  country.  Still  every  oue  who  made  syrup  observed  that  oc- 
casionally it  granulated  so  that  it  would  not  pour  out  of  the  barrel. 
In  the  face  of  this,  writers  set  it  down  that  the  syrup  was  grape 
sugar  and  no  treatment  would  make  it  granulate.  This  being  ac- 
cepted, no  further  effort  was  attempted  to  make  sugar,  and  so  the 
cultivation  has  continutd  with  that  understanding  until  within  the 
last  few  years. 

The  exception  was  established  by  the  experiments  of  a  few  en- 
terprising gentlemen  who,  reporting  their  success  in  eliminating 
sugar  from  the  cane,  were  encouraged  by  the  Commissioner  of  Agri- 
culture, Gen.  LeDtic,  to  extend  their  experiments  until  now  it  ha* 
been  completely  proved  that  it  not  only  makes  sugar,  but  to  a  de- 
gree that  makes  it  very  profitable. 

This  department  being  desirous  of  contributing  everything  in  ite 
power  to  add  to  the  wealth  and  resources  of  the  State  of  Tennessee, 
has  made  accurate  investigations  as  to  the  process  of  sorghum  sugar 
making  in  all  its  details.  With  this  view  the  Commissioner  has 
lately  visited  all  the  States  engaged  in  the  business  and  attended 
at  the  experimental  works  at  Washington  where  the  whole  process 
was  pointed  out.  In  giving  the  details  to  the  public  the  Depart- 
ment can  vouch  for  the  reliability  of  the  statements  in  so  far  as  the 
information  of  trustworthy  men  will  permit.  Of  course  th^re  are 
the  differences  of  climate  and  soil  to  be  considered,  but  these  will 
be  in  favor  of  the  South,  as  we  have  decided  advantages  over  the 
States  North  in  the  soil,  which  gives  more  saccharine  matter,  and 
in  the  increased  time  allowed  lor  working  the  cane,  from  the  length 
of  our  seasons.  In  this  matter  the  department  must  acknowledge 
its  obligations  to  Messrs.  G.  W.  Stockwell  and  David  C.  Scales  for 
valuable  assistance.  Before  entering  upon  a  description  it  may  be 
df  interest  to  say  that  in  a  short  time  one  of  the  most  enterprising 


(  126  ) 

business  men  of  Nashville  will  engage  in  the  business  of  sugar 
making.  He  is  now  getting  up  all  the  necessary  information  to 
enable  him  to  go  into  the  business  intelligently,  and  there  is  no 
doubt  but  that  his  success  will  invite  others  to  enjoy  the  profits  of 
the  business. 

The  process  of  sugar  making  involves  an  outlay  of  from  $3,000 
to  $10,000,  according  to  the  character  of  the  machinery  employed. 
The  former  machine  will  not  take  the  sugar  through  the  refining 
process,  only  through  the  centrifugals,  a  machine  that  revolves 
with  great  rapidity  and  throws  out  the  molasses,  leaving  a  dry 
white  sugar,  equal  to  Coffee  A  sugar,  but  purer  than  any  kind  ex- 
cept the  granulated  sugars.  There  are  so  many  adulterations  of 
sugar,  molasses  and  honey,  that  even  were  it  carried  no  further, 
this  would  add  greatly  to  its  purity  and  healthfulness.  Nearly  all 
those  beautiful  fancy  brands  of  syprus  that  attract  the  admiration 
of  house  keepers,  are  concocted  from  corn  starch  and  poisonous 
acids,  with  the  addition  of  glucose.  Even  much  of  our  sugar  is 
made  from  these  materials,  and  it  is  impossible  to  eliminate  all  the 
poisonous  acids  from  it. 

The  finer  and  more  costly  machines  carry  it  through  a  refining 
process,  making  all  the  fancy  brands  of  sugar  and  syrup.  The 
establishment  of  a  refinery  involves  the  erection  of  numerous  steam 
works  to  boil  the  syrup  to  the  proper  consistence,  and  these  sell  to 
the  refiners  their  products,  either  »in  the  form  of  syrup  or  semi- 
syrup  and  mush  sugar.  The  latter  is  made  by  boiling  the  syrup  to 
a  certain  consistence  and  then  putting  it  in  vats,  where  it  remains 
in  a  cool  atmosphere  to  granulate,  which  process  is  completed  in 
forty- eight  to  fifty  hours. 

Cane  is  grown  according  to  the  directions  given  above.  To 
make  sugar,  however,  the  soil  is  never  fertilized,  nor  is  the  ground 
stirred  after  the  cane  gets  twenty  inches  high,  as  either  of  these 
measures  injures  the  character  of  the  juice.  The  quantity  of  juice 
as  well  as  its  richness  varies  with  every  season.  When  the  seasons 
are  wet  more  juice  is  made,  and  when  dry  less  juice  but  more  sugar. 
In  these  there  is  but  little  difference,  except  in  the  labor  of  boiling 
down.  In  wet  seasons  the  juice  makes  about  8  per  cent  of  sugar, 
while  in  dry  seasons  it  reaches  from  12  to  14  per  cent. 

The  best  soil  for  growing  sorghum  is  sandy  or  gravelly  loam, 
and  the  land  that  makes  nothing  else  will  turn  out  a  fair  crop  of 


(  127) 

the  cane.  It  is  the  one  crop  that  is  unaffected  by  droughts;  for 
let  the  season  be  as  dry  as  it  ever  becomes  in  this  country,  the  cane 
grows  sufficiently  large  to  produce  a  good  yield.  Cane  stripped 
of  its  leaves  will  make  from  37  to  39  per  cent  of  its  weight  in 
juice. 

An  acre  of  first-class  land  will  make  30  tons  per  acre,  and  it 
varies  down  to  10  tons  with  the  character  of  soil  and  climate,  and 
method  of  cultivation.  The  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  at 
Washington  caused  analyses  to  be  made  of  every  species  of  cane 
grown  in  the  United  States,  and  ascertained  that  the  variation  in 
amount  of  syrup  or  sugar  was  so  slight  that  but  little  attention 
need  be  given  to  the  species.  He  also  found  out  that  it  makes 
good  syrup  and  sugar  in  every  stage  of  its  growth,  from  the  milk 
stage  of  the  seeds  to  their  full  ripening,  so  this  peculiarity  enables 
the  farmer  to  begin  the  process  of  cutting  and  boiling  down  at  an 
early  period  of  its  growth,  which  can  be  continued  for  at  least  six 
weeks  after  the  full  ripening  of  the  seeds.  He  recommends,  how- 
ever, that  it  should  be  boiled  down  as  soon  after  cutting  as  possible, 
as  the  juice  in  the  ends  ferments  and  some  of  it  is  thus  lost. 

The  poorest  syrup  makes  two  to  three  pounds  of  sugar,  while  the 
best  makes  nine  pounds  per  gallon.  The  medium  and  average  may 
safely  be  put  at  six  and  a  half  pounds  per  gallon  of  syrup.  But 
there  is  no  loss  in  it,  or  not  more  than  two  per  cent,  as  what  is 
left  makes  a  choice  and  superior  syrup.  It  may  be  safely  said  that 
one  gallon  of  syrup  will  make  ninety- eight  per  cent  of  sugar  and 
syrup. 

In  Minnesota,  where  the  business  has  already  assumed  large 
proportions,  there  are  but  about  two  months  in  which  to  make 
syrup,  while  in  Tennessee  the  seasons  extend  from  the  1st  of  Au- 
gust to  the  1st  of  January. 

The  refinery  can  work  all  the  year  from  the  store  .of  syrup  it 
lays  in,  provided  the  farmers  grow  enough  to  keep  them  at  work. 

The  refinery  in  Minnesota  buys  cane  and  syrup.  There  is,  as 
yet,  but  one  large  refinery,  and  that  is  at  Faribault,  Minnesota, 
although  there  are  hundreds  of  lesser  ones  that  act  as  feeders  to 
the  larger  one. 

From  $2  to  $3  per  ton  are  paid  for  the  cane,  stripped  and  ready 
to  grind,  or  from  twenty  to  thirty  cents  per  gallon  for  the  syrup, 
according  as  the  saccharometer  declares  the  proportion  of  saccha- 


(  128  ) 

rine  matter,  which  in  every  case  undergoes  this  test.  Thus  the 
farmer  is  incited  to  produce  a  first-class  syrup.  By  planting  varie- 
ties of  cane  that  mature  at  different  times,  the  farmer  can  take 
advantage  of  the  seasons,  and  thus  get  in  a  much  larger  crop,  with 
less  crowding  for  labor  than  if  it  all  ripened  at  once. 

From  investigations  made  by  Gen.  Le  Dae,  there  is  but  little 
difference  in  the  amount  of  sugar  or  syrup  between  the  Louisiana 
cane  and  sorghum,  and  it  requires  substantially  the  same  machinery 
to  convert  it  into  sugar. 

Dr.  Wilhelm,  of  Minnesota,  a  celebrated  chemist,  has  made  dis- 
coveries of  materials  that  free  the  juice  of  all  acids  and  vegetable 
matters  that  have  operated  so  far  to  make  the  taste  of  sorghum  so 
objectionable  to  many  persons.  He  and  Messrs.  Blakely,  a  capital- 
ist, and  Mr.  Jolly,  the  inventor  of  the  machines,  have  a  manufac- 
tory of  the  machines,  and  they,  in  selling  machines,  agree  to 
impart  the  secret  of  these  chemical  agents  to  purchasers,  as  well  as 
to  teach  them  the  art  of  refining  the  sugar  and  syrup.  By  aid  of 
these  processes  every  grade  of  Louisiana  sugar  and  syrup  is  made, 
and  they  compare  most  favorably  with  them.  The  polariscope 
shows  a  grade  of  ninety- five  to  ninety-eight  per  cent,  the  crystals 
are  sharp  and  well  defined,  and  the  cubes  are  perfect,  and  this  is 
all  that  is  claimed  for  the  best  Louisiana  sugar.  The  syrup  will 
yield  about  seventy  to  eighty-five  per  cent  of  its  bulk  or  weight  in 
sugar.  A  ton  of  good  cane  will  make  one  hundred  pounds  of 
sugar,  and  six  gallons  of  syrup,  according  to  the  testimony  of  ex- 
perts. If  this  be  so,  the  profits  of  sugar  making  are  enormous,  as 
any  one  can  see  by  a  small  calculation.  The  world  has  never  yet 
had  a  supply  equal  to  the  demand,  hence  its  high  price.  But  if 
this  business  is  pursued  to  its  i'ull  capacity,  the  supply  will  stimulate 
a  greater  consumption,  as  any  family  man  knows.  In  short,  there 
is  no  danger  of  glutting  tht  market.  It  may  drive  beets  out  of 
the  trade,  but  it  will  always  let  the  supply  be  as  great  as  it  may, 
command  a  remunerative  price.  The  people  of  the  United  States 
every  year  send  out  one  hundred  millions  of  dollars  to  buy  foreign 
sweets.  The  effect  of  keeping  this  immense  sum  at  home,  and 
distributing  it  among  the  farmers,  will  be  felt  materially.  This 
economic  view  alone  is  a  great  inducement  to  this  department  to 
stimulate  the  production  oi  sugar. 

Nor  is  the  production  of  sugar  and  syrup  confined  to  sorghum. 


(129) 

Large  quantities  have  been  and  are  being  made  from  Indian  corn 
stalks.  This  department  would  not  recommend  the  erection  of 
machines  for  that  purpose,  but  where  they  exist,  and  cane  is 
stripped  of  its  corn  for  roasting  ears  in  market  gardens,  the  stalks 
could  be  utilized  in  this  manner  rather  than  left  to  dry  up.  It 
does  not  make  so  much  syrup  or  sugar  as  sorghum,  but  it  is  as 
good. 

Capt.  Blakeley  has  submitted  specimens  of  sugar  and  syrup  to 
the  Merchants'  Exchange  of  Minneapolis,  and  they  speak  of  it  in 
the  highest  terms  as  being  equal  in  every  respect  to  the  sugar  and 
syrup  of  commerce.  It  was  then  submitted  to  the  polariscope,  and 
it  showed  the  presence  of  ninety- eight  per  cent  of  sucrose,  or  true 
sugar. 

From  repeated  experiments  made  by  the  Minnesota  refinery,  and 
by  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  at  Washington,  it  costs  about 
two  cents  to  make  a  pound  of  sugar.  Take  the  price  of  ten  to 
twelve  cents,  its  present  value,  and  the  profit  is  apparent. 

Not  only  does  this  new  process  add  sugar  to  the  country,  but 
pure  syrup,  a  thing  much  rarer.  Millions  of  gallons  of  adulterated 
honey  are  sold  every  year,  as  well  as  other  impure  syrups.  By  this 
refining  process  pure  syrups  of  delightful  flavor  are  made  so  cheaply 
they  can  undersell  even  the  adulterations  so  common  in  all  stores. 
The  United  States  make  315,000,000  gallons  of  syrups  from 
sorghum  and  Louisiana  cane,  while  the  country  consumes  twice 
that  amount.  It  has  its  growth  in  the  laboratories  of  the  adultera- 
tor, instead  of  the  sugar  mills  of  the  country.  It  will  add  no  little 
to  the  healthfulness  of  the  people  when  this  vile  trade  is  arrested, 
which  can  only  be  done  by  making  a  pure  syrup  that  will  undersell 
the  fabricated  article.  Sorghum  presents  the  only  solution  to  this 
difficulty,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  it 
will  be  accomplished.  It  will  require  a  large  increase  in  the  culti- 
vation of  cane.  If  the  erection  of  mills  has  the  same  effect  in 
Tennessee  as  it  had  in  Minnesota,  the  increase  in  the  amount  grown 
will  be  enormous.  It  will  be  the  same  here,  doubtless,  as  there 
are  large  amounts  of  land  devoted  to  products  that  often  fail,  such 
as  cotton,  tobacco,  and  wheat.  Sorghum  never  fails.  When  it 
gets  a  start  it  will  grow  with  or  without  care. 

The  farmers  of  Minnesota  grow^arly  amber  to  the  exclusion  of 
all  other  varieties,  and  they  think  no  other  kind  will  succeed ;  but 
9 


(130) 

Gen.  Le  Due  has  established  the  fact  that  no  material  difference 
exists  between  them,  one  variety  being  as  good  as  another.  It 
may  be  well  enough  to  try  the  early  amber,  however,  and  possibly 
the  experience  of  Tennesseans  may  discover  a  difference.  The 
amber  is  a  sport  or  hybrid  of  some  of  the  African  varieties. 

Above  is  stated  the  difference  of  the  various  machines.  Sup- 
posing that  only  one  refinery  will  be  established,  it  will  be  of  inter- 
est to  farmers  to  know  the  best  process  of  preparing  cane  for  sale 
to  the  refinery.  The  ordinary  mill  and  evaporating  pan  only  are 
required.  Let  the  syrup  be  boiled  in  the  pans  as  usual,  until  it  is 
of  the  ordinary  thickness.  In  this  form  it  is  salable  to  the  refinery 
as  well  as  to  consumers.  At  an  outlay  of  $3,000  a  farmer,  or  a 
combination  of  farmers  can  sell  sugar  to  the  refinery,  or  to  the 
general  market,  that  is  equal  to  the  best  coffee  sugars.  This  is 
done  by  the  addition  of  a  "  centrifugal,"  an  iron  box  with  gauze 
wire  sides,  that  revolves  with  amazing  rapidity  in  a  hollow  cylin- 
der, and  it  throws  out  every  particle  of  fluid  matter,  retaining 
only  the  solid  crystals  of  sugar.  Of  course,  the  centrifugal  can 
only  be  revolved  with  the  aid  of  steam.  But  steam  is  so  far  su- 
perior to  furnaces  for  the  evaporation  of  the  juice  of  sorghum  that 
it  will  be  an  improvement  to  employ  it  for  that  purpose  even  if  a 
centrifugal  is  not  provided.  Hon.  Seth  H.  Kinney,  of  Morris- 
town,  Minnesota,  proposes  to  sell  these  machines  and  send  a  man  to 
teach  their  use. 

Another  method  of  selling  to  the  refinery  is  the  "  mush  sugar." 
This  is  made  by  the  use  of  the  ordinary  mill  and  evaporator  and 
granulating  pans.  First  boil  the  juice  to  a  certain  consistency, 
shown  by  an  instrument  called  the  saccharometer,  then  place  the 
syrup  in  pans  provided  for  the  purpose,  that  shut  up  like  a  chest  of 
drawers.  It  here  remains  for  a  certain  time,  varying  from  forty- 
eight  hours  to  three  weeks,  when  it  is  found  to  be  in  the  condition 
that  is  called  mush  sugar,  and  it  is  then  ready  for  the  centrifugal 
or  the  refinery.  It  would  be  a  good  idea  for  several  neighbors  to 
pool  together^  and  provide  one  centrifugal  for  a  hundred  mills,  as 
it  can  be  run  at  any  time  throughout  the  winter  or  the  succeeding 
year. 

These  machines  will  soon  appear,  however,  when  the  erection  of 
a  refinery  creates  a  demand  for  tj^eir  services. 

Messrs.  Stockell  and  Scales  have  kindly  placed  at  the  disposal  of 


(  131) 

the  Department  of  Agriculture  a  correspondence  held  with  persons 
owning  these  supplemental  machines,  from  which  the  following  in- 
formation has  been  gathered.  The  reader  will  notice  how  reticent 
they  are  about  giving  the  details  of  the  process  they  employ.  It  is 
the  fear  of  competition  which  influences  them  to  this  silence. 

W.  Z.  Haight,  of  Winnebago,  writes  : 

"  The  early  amber  is  the  best  variety  for  sugar  making.  Select  sandy  or  grav- 
elly land,  and  prepare  it  as  for  a  crop  of  Indian  corn.  Sow  the  seed  in  drills  four 
feet  apart,  and  cultivate  in  the  same  manner  as  corn  is  cultivated.  When  the  corn 
is  twenty  inches  high  allow  it  to  take  care  of  itself,  as  plowing  it  again  would  cut 
the  surface  roots,  and  thus  injure  the  quality  of  the  juice.  When  the  seeds  are 
in  the  dough  state  begin  to  cut,  first  stripping  off  the  leaves  and  cutting  off  the 
heads.  Cut  it  off  at  the  first  and  last  joint.  Some  allow  it  to  lie  after  cutting  five 
or  six  days,  while  others  contend  it  is  best  to  grind  at  once.  I  have  never  seen  any 
difference,  and  the  range  gives  more  time  to  get  it  ground  up.  My  syrup  makes 
about  eighty  per  cent  of  granulated  sugar.  It  will  make  good  syrup  when  the 
seeds  are  too  green  to  germinate,  and  it  also  makes,  for  me,  good  syrup  when  it  has 
been  cut  and  has  lain  seven  weeks.  But  this  is  an  extreme  that  should  be  avoided 
if  possible.  If  possible  to  avoid  it,  it  should  never  lie  longer  than  one  week.  An 
ordinary  good  mill  and  evaporating  pan  should  make  20,000  gallons  syrup  in  one 
season.  I  get  my  syrup  worked  into  Sugar  on  the  shares,  and  my  sugar  will  com- 
pare favorably  with  any  sugar  brought  from  New  Orleans.  Any  farmer  can  reduce 
his  juice  to  syrup,  leave  it  in  pans  to  granulate,  and  by  use  of  a  centrifugal  convert 
it  into  sugar.  The  centrifugal  is  a  sieve-like  box  that  revolves  with  great  rapidity, 
and  it  throws  out  the  molasses,  leaving  the  sugar.  There  is  next  to  no  waste  in  the 
syrup,  as  what  does  not  make  sugar  will  make  fine  syrup." 

Mr.  J.  B.  Thorns,  of  Crystal  Lake,  Illinois,  writes : 

"  A  ton  of  cane  will  make  twenty  gallons  of  good  syrup.  This  syrup  sells  for  fifty 
to  sixty  cents  per  gallon.  Each  ton  of  cane  will  make  one  hundred  pounds  of 
sugar  and  eight  gallons  of  syrup.  The  machinery  to  work  out  one  hundred  tons 
per  day  will  cost  from  $1,200  to  $1,500.  This  includes  the  services  of  a  man  to 
teach  the  business." 

Mr.  C.  F.  Miller,  of  Dundas,  Bice  county,  Minnesota,  writes: 

Cane  machinery  is  very  expensive.  First-class  machinery,  with  vacuum  pans, 
centrifugal,  bone  dust  filtererp,  etc.,  etc.,  will  cost  $10,000.  This  will  work  up  a 
crop  of  two  hundred  acres  in  a  season.  A  machine  that  will  work  up  a  crop  of  five 
hundred  acres  will  cost  double  as  much.  But  it  can  be  used  for  refining  purposes 
all  the  year.  The  business  is  more  remunerative  than  anything  I  ever  knew  of.  It 
will  make  any  man  of  good  judgment  rich  in  a  few  years.  He  can  make  enough 
in  the  first  season  to  pay  all  expenses,  and  the  cost  of  the  machinery.  The  amber 
cane  is  the  best.  It  will  make  in  this  climate  two  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hun- 
dred gallons  per  acre.  I  have  made  four  hundred  gallons  on  one  acre.  Many 
other  varieties  are  raised  here,  but  amber  is  the  best.  The  early  orange  comes  oft 
too  late  to  suit  us,  but  would  make  a  fine  successive  crop  with  you  in  Tennessee." 


(  U2) 

Hon.  Seth  H.  Kinney,  of  Morristown,  Rice  county,  Minnesota, 
writes : 

"  About  ten  tons  of  cane  is  an  average  crop  with  us.  The  average  yield  is  one 
hundred  and  sixty  gallons  per  acre  of  good  syrup,  and  this  makes,  on  an  average, 
six  pounds  of  sugar  per  gallon,  leaving  the  balance  in  syrup.  It  costs  six  and  a 
half  cents  per  gallon  when  made  thick  enough  for  sugar.  We  plant  and  cultivate 
in  drills,  as  Indian  corn  is  raised,  rows  three  and  a  half  feet  apart  But  I  think  it 
would  be  better  to  check  it  off  on  hills  four  feet  apart  each  way.  I  strip  the  leaves 
off  with  a  forked  stick,  cutting  off  the  seed  first.  We  prefer  the  amber  variety. 
There  are  seventeen  factories  in  my  vicinity,  each  as  large  as  mine,  besides  some 
smaller  ones,  all  sprung  up  within  the  last  two  or  three  years.  I  have  been  grind- 
ing and  making  syrup  twenty  years,  but  have  been  making  sugar  about  six  years. 
I  find  it  very  profitable.  I  pay  $2.80  per  ton  for  cane.  One  ton  makes  one  hun- 
dred pounds  sugar  and  sixteen  gallons  syrup.  I  work  at  it  five  or  six  weeks.  I 
have  expended  about  $3,000  in  perfecting  my  machinery.  We  have  a  good  thing 
of  it  out  here  in  Minnesota,  and  there  is  no  good  reason  why  you  should  not  enjoy 
it  also.  It  is  within  the  reach  of  any  man  of  ordinary  intelligence.  He  can  soon 
learn  with  a  little  showing.  It  is  the  very  best  agricultural  pursuit  we  know  or 
ever  heard  of.  It  beats  wheat  a  long  way  with  us,  and  will  beat  cotton  with  you. 
It  is  a  cash  business,  also.  It  will  bring  in  cash  at  all  times,  and  never  lacks  a 
purchaser.  It  will  pay  you  to  send  for  a  press  and  go  into  the  business.  I  have 
made  sugar  now  about  six  years,  and  each  year  find  out  something  new  that  lessens 
the  work  and  makes  better  sugar.  The  early  amber  is  the  best  by  all  odds.  I  have 
supplied  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  with  amber  seed  every  year  for  seven- 
teen years.  Last  year  I  sold  him  50,000  Ibs.  of  seed,  besides  shipping  2,400  Ibs.  to 
Japan  and  1,500  Ibs.  to  France.  It  retails  at  fifty  cents  per  pound,  though  I  only 
got  ten  cents  per  pound.  That  I  shipped  I  got  eighteen  cents  for.  The  stalk  of 
the  amber  is  eleven  to  twelve  feet  high,  and  three-quarters  to  one  inch  in  diameter. 

This  closes  what  is  to  be  said  on  the  subject.  It  is  seen  that  there 
is  a  difference  of  opinion  about  the  results  or  yield,  but  this  arises 
from  the  difference  in  soil  and  treatment.  But  even  taking  a  point 
far  below  the  lowest  estimate  and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  yield  is 
very  great.  The  man  who  takes  the  initiative  in  this  business  will 
probably  work  without  competition  for  a  few  years.  In  that  time 
he  will  reap  rich  rewards,  for  there  is  no  doubt  of  the  profitableness 
of  this  special  industry.  When  the  matter  of  making  sorghum 
sugar  was  first  agitated,  this  department  held  aloof  from  recom- 
mending it  to  the  citizens  of  the  State.  It  is  the  policy  of  the  Bureau 
to  act  conservatively,  and  to  do  nothing  and  to  recommend  nothing 
that  will  cause  the  people  to  lose  money.  The  attention  of  this  De- 
partment has  been  drawn  to  it  constantly  by  prominent  gentlemen, 
amon&  them  the  late  Col.  Sam  D.  Morgan,  and  now,  by  actual  ob- 
servation, it  can  conscientiously  reccommend  the  production  of 


(  133  ) 

sugar  from  sorghum  as  a  highly  profitable  pursuit.  And  such 
being  the  conclusion,  there  is  no  good  reason  why  our  citizens  shall 
not  enjoy  the  benefits  arising  therefrom.  Our  State  is  peculiarly 
well  suited  to  the  culture  of  sorghum.  The  seasons  are  long,  giv- 
ing a  sufficiency  of  time  to  work  it  up,  and  the  reward  is  certainly 
stimulating.  It  is  the  opinion  of  the  Department  that  more  than 
one  refinery  should  not  be  erected  for  the  present,  for  it  requires 
many  small  machines  to  keep  one  running.  But  there  should  be 
no  limit  to  the  others.  More  of  the  cane  should  be  raised,  and 
every  one  that  raises  it  in  sufficient  quantity  should  provide  himtelf 
with  a  mill  and  an  evaporator.  It  would  be  a  good  idea  for  a 
number  of  men  in  each  county  to  set  up  a  centrifugal,  and  make 
sugar  enough,  at  least,  for  home  consumption. 

Mr.  E.  S.  Jones,  of  Pulaski,  Tennessee,  has  met  with  considera- 
ble success  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar.  According  to  his  experi- 
ence the  juice  of  the  orange  cane  contains  from  10°  to  12°  by 
Baume's  instrument.  This  is  from  2°  to  4°  sweeter  than  is  ob- 
tained from  any  other  variety  of  sorghum  planted  in  Tennessee. 
The  old  varieties  of  sorghum  require  from  eight  to  ten  gallons  of 
raw  juice  to  make  one  gallon  of  syrup,  while  with  the  early  amber 
and  early  orange  it  only  requires  from  five  to  six  gallons  of  juice  to 
inspissate  a  gallon  of  syrup.  This  is  a  great  advantage,  as  no  more 
work  is  required  to  cultivate  an  acre  of  the  one  than  of  the  other. 
Mr.  Jones  thinks  the  older  varieties  of  sorghum  have  become  im- 
paired by  hybridization  with  broom  corn  and  other  congenital 
plants. 

The  sugar  which  Mr.  Jones  makes  is  equal  to  Coffee  A  and  C, 
and  is  free  from  the  objectionable  sorghum  taste. 

With  the  introduction  of  sorghum  into  Tennessee  agriculture,  it 
does  seem  that  the  last  desideratum  of  the  farmer  is  supplied.  With 
a  climate  the  most  salubrious  and  equable,  a  soil  the  most  various 
and  comprehensive,  it  sends  into  the  market,  annually,  grain  and 
hay  of  every  description.  Her  cattle  and  sheep  are  sent  in  large 
numbers  into  Northern  cities,  while  her  mules  and  horses  supply 
the  teams  of  the  South.  Fruits  and  vegetables  anticipate  the 
gardens  of  the  North,  and  now  she  is  able  to  draw  a  plant  from 
Africa  or  Asia  to  supply  her  people  with  an  ample  quantity  of 
home-made  syrups  and  sugars. 


(  1*4) 
BEGGARS'  IjICE.—(fynoglo8sum  Morisoni.) 

Although  this  is  nothing  more  than  a  weed,  and  a  very  trouble- 
some one  when  it  comes  in  contact  with  sheep's  wool,  yet  it  per- 
forms a  very  important  function  in  the  economy  of  nature,  as  it 
constitutes  one  of  the  main  dependencies  for  food  in  certain  sec- 
tions of  the  State  for  stock.  During  the  winter  months  the  seeds 
adhere  to  the  mouths  of  cattle,  causing  their  mouths  to  look  like 
warty  excrescences  adhering  to  them.  The  seeds  are  full  of  glutten 
and  starch,  and  deer  get  fat  on  them  in  the  season.  This  weed  has 
seeds  covered  with  minute  hooks,  so  that  they  cling  to  anybody 
coming  in  contact  with  them,  it  being  a  provision  of  nature  by 
which  they  are  conveyed  to  distant  points  for  germination. 

It  abounds  in  almost  every  section  of  the  State,  but  especially  on 
the  "  rim  lands  "  in  the  "  barrens,"  where  it  exists  in  the  greatest 
abundance.  Cattle  are  very  fond  of  it,  and  it  serves  a  useful  pur- 
pose while  all  other  food  is  destroyed  by  the  cold  weather.  In 
fact,  the  cattle  of  the  range  keep  in  good  thriving  order  on  the 
seeds  alone  during  the  entire  winter  months.  This  weed,  although 
it  answers  such  a  useful  purpose  as  a  food  for  both  cattle  and  sheep, 
is  a  great  pest,  as  the  seeds  render  wool  almost  worthless,  for  they 
adhere  with  so  much  tenacity  to  wool  it  cannot  be  separated  from 
them,  and  no  machinery  has  yet  been  invented  that  can  remove 
them.  We  would  not  recommend  its  propagation. 


INDEX. 


PAGE. 

Alfalfa— Lucerne 45 

Analysis  of 48 

Annual  Spear  Grass 52 

Beggars'  Lice 134 

Bermuda  Grass — Scutch  Grass 50 

Blue  Grass 52 

Analysis  of 62 

Clover— Alsike 44 

Analysis  of , 44 

Clover— Crimson 45 

Analysis  of 45 

Clover— Eed 32 

Soils  adapted  to 32 

Sowing 32 

Growth  and  Manure 34 

Nutritive  value  and  constituent  elements  of 36 

Analysis  of 37 

Effects  of  upon  soils— Manure  for 38 

Saving  hay  of 39 

Saving  seed  of 41 

As  a  preparatory  crop  for  wheat 43 

Clover— White 68 

Clover— Sapling  Red 45 

Clover— Japan,  or  King's  Grass 69 

Chinese  Sugar  Corn 117 

History  of 118 

Varieties  of 120 

Cultivation  and  harvesting  of 121 

Manufacture  of  sugar  from 125 

Crab,  or  Crop  Grass 24 

Dhouro  Corn,  Durra  or  Doura,  Indian  Millet 102 

Analysis  of 105 

Gama  Grass , 28 

Hairy  Muskit— Mewjuite-Mesquit 52 


Meadows— Management  of  and  manures  for „ 73 

Preparation  of  lands  for 74 

Selection  of  seed  for  and  method  of  mixing 78 

Times  and  manner  of  sowing 83 

Cutting,  Curing,  and  Storing  Hay 85 

Troublesome  plants  to 90 

Manures  for 91 

Analysis  of  soils  for : 93 

Meadow  Grasses , 10 

Names  of  trustworthy  varieties 10 

Meadow  Oat  Grass 29 

Meadow  Fescue — Randall  Grass — Evergreen  Grass 65 

Millett 25 

Nimble  Will 50 

Orchard  Grass 19 

Analysis  of 20,  21 

Pasture  Grasses 49 

Pea 105 

Polk,  Hon.  H.  M.,  on  the  cultivation  and  uses  of  the  pea 106 

Red  Top— Herd's  Grass 16 

Rye  Grass— English 22 

Italian 23 

Sainfoin,  or  Esparsette 48 

Sheep's  Fescue , 63 

Sorghum 30 

Analysis  of 31 

Sweet-scented  Vernal  Grass ,, 67 

Timothy 11 

Tall  Meadow  Oak  Grass '. 66 

Tall  Fescue  Grass 65 

Wood  Meadow  Grass .  53 


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